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Taxus brevifolia

Taxus brevifolia
Taxus brevifolia (Pacific yew) foliage and fruit
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Gymnospermae
Division: Pinophyta
Class: Pinopsida
Order: Cupressales
Family: Taxaceae
Genus: Taxus
Species:
T. brevifolia
Binomial name
Taxus brevifolia
Natural range
Synonyms[2][3]
  • Taxus baccata subsp. brevifolia (Nutt.) Pilg.
  • Taxus baccata var. brevifolia (Nutt.) Koehne
  • Taxus baccata var. canadensis Benth.
  • Taxus boursieri Carrière
  • Taxus brevifolia var. polychaeta Spjut
  • Taxus brevifolia subsp. polychaeta (Spjut) Silba
  • Taxus brevifolia var. reptaneta Spjut
  • Taxus brevifolia subsp. reptaneta (Spjut) Silba
  • Taxus lindleyana A. Murray bis
  • Taxus occidentalis Nutt.

Taxus brevifolia, the Pacific yew or western yew, is a species of tree in the yew family Taxaceae native to the Pacific Northwest of North America. It is a small evergreen conifer, thriving in moisture and otherwise tending to take the form of a shrub.

Description

A small evergreen conifer (sometimes appearing as a shrub),[4] the Pacific yew grows to 10–15 metres (33–49 feet) tall and with a trunk up to 50 centimetres (20 inches) in diameter, rarely more. In some instances, trees with heights in excess of 20 m (66 ft) occur in parks and other protected areas, quite often in gullies. The tree is extremely slow growing, and has a habit of rotting from the inside, creating hollow forms. This makes it difficult and sometimes impossible to make accurate ring counts to determine a specimen's true age. Often damaged by succession of the forest, it usually ends up in a squat, multiple-leader form, able to grow new sprouts from decapitated stumps.[4] In its shrub form, sometimes called "yew brush", it can reproduce vegetatively via layering.[4]

It has thin, scaly bark, red then purplish-brown,[4] covering a thin layer of off-white sap wood with a darker heartwood that varies in color from brown to a purplish hue to deep red, or even bright orange when freshly cut.[4] The leaves are lanceolate, flat, dark green, 1–3 cm (3⁄8–1+3⁄16 in) long[4] and 2–3 millimetres (3⁄32–1⁄8 in) broad, arranged spirally on the stem, but with the leaf bases twisted to align the leaves in two flat rows either side of the stem except on erect leading shoots where the spiral arrangement is more obvious.

The seed cones are highly modified, each cone containing a single seed 4–7 mm (3⁄16–1⁄4 in) long partly surrounded by a modified scale which develops into a soft, bright red berry-like structure called an aril,[4] 8–15 mm (5⁄16–9⁄16 in) long and wide and open at the end. The arils are mature 6–9 months after pollination. The seeds contained in the arils are eaten by thrushes and other birds, which disperse the hard seeds undamaged in their droppings; maturation of the arils is spread over 2–3 months, increasing the chances of successful seed dispersal. The male cones are globose, 3–6 mm (1⁄8–1⁄4 in) diameter, and shed their pollen in early spring. It is mostly dioecious, but occasional individuals can be variably monoecious, or change sex with time.[citation needed]

Taxonomy

Varieties

Taxus brevifolia var. reptaneta

T. brevifolia var. reptaneta (thicket yew) is a shrub variety that generally occurs in the mid to upper elevation range of the typical variety, 1,000–1,220 m (3,280–4,000 ft) at its southernmost occurrence in the Klamath Mountains region, and at lower elevations further north.[5] It is distinguished from young trees of the typical variety (var. brevifolia) by its stems initially creeping along the ground for a short distance before ascending (curving) upwards and by the branches growing off to one side of the stem, usually the upper side.[6] The epithet reptaneta is from the Latin reptans which means "creeping, prostrate, and rooting",[7] which is exactly what this variety does; in rooting it forms yew thickets; hence, the epithet reptaneta (-etum means "collective place of growth") and hence the common name, thicket yew.

Unlike the typical variety, thicket yew grows in abundance on open sunny avalanche shoots or ravines as well as in the forest understory. It also occurs along forest margins. In northwestern Montana, a variant of the thicket yew does not ascend upwards; rather, it remains along the ground.[5] This is probably the ancestral form; the upright form with branches along the upper side would be the expected growth pattern that might evolve from one with stems that strictly creep along the ground since branches can only arise from the upper surface.

T. brevifolia var. reptaneta has been described as synonymous with typical yew (var. brevifolia). Though the two varieties may be genetically distinct, some botanists only use this taxon to describe different geographical ranges. For example, T. mairei var. speciosa, which occurs with the typical variety in southern China in 10 of 13 provinces, was rejected for the lack of a "geographic reason" for recognition[8] though it appears genetically distinct.[9] T. brevifolia var. reptaneta has also been proposed to be elevated to a subspecies, despite that rank being used to define geographically separated groups of T. baccata.[10][a]

Taxus brevifolia var. polychaeta

Typical T. brevifolia, like most species in the genus, usually produces a single ovule on a complex scaly shoot, composed of a primary shoot and a secondary short shoot. To the casual observer they appear as one funnelform shoot with an ovule at the apex.[12] T. brevifolia var. polychaeta differs from var. brevifolia in producing a relatively longer primary shoot[5] with as many five secondary shoots.[13] The epithet, polychaeta, is in reference to the primary shoot resembling a polychaete worm; hence, its common name 'worm cone yew'. Variety polychaeta appears to be relatively rare. It may have been extirpated from the type locality—around Mud Bay near Olympia, Washington—as a result of urban expansion. It is also known from Northern Idaho and Sonoma County, California.[5][14]

As in the case with thicket yew, worm yew has been indicated to be the same as the typical variety, but again there are no specific studies to support this conclusion. The authority of thicket yew and worm cone yew has been involved in the study of Taxus for 25 years at the time the varieties were described.[5][15]

Similar species

Yew foliage is very similar to that of Sequoia sempervirens, the coastal redwood.[4]

Distribution and habitat

Pacific yew is native to the Pacific Northwest. It ranges from southernmost Alaska south to Northern California, mostly in the Pacific Coast Ranges, but with isolated disjunct populations in southeast British Columbia and in Northern Idaho.[16][17][18][19][20][21] It grows in varying types of environments; however, in drier environments it is mostly limited to stream-side habitats, whereas in moist environments it will grow up onto slopes and ridgetops,[16] at least as high in altitude as 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) above sea level.[4] Pacific yew is shade tolerant, but can also grow in sun.[22] The tree's shade tolerance allows it to form an understory, which means that it can grow along streams providing shade to maintain water temperature.[23]

Ecology

Birds eat the fruit cups and spread the seeds.[24] Moose feed on the tree in winter in forests of the Rocky Mountains.[4]

Toxicity

Many parts of yews are poisonous and can be fatal if eaten, including the seed which should not even be chewed.[24]

Uses

Traditionally, the resilient and rot-resistant wood was used by Native Americans to make tools, bows (backed with sinew), arrows, and canoe paddles.[4] Other purposes for yew included making harpoons, fishhooks, wedges, clubs, spoons, drums, snowshoes, and arrowheads.[4] The foliage and bark was used for medicinal purposes.[4] Members of the Pit River Tribe would sell this plant to the Ukiah.[25] The Concow tribe calls the tree yōl’-kō (Konkow language).[26]

Modern-day longbow makers report that a very small percentage of yew trees are of a grain suitable for their craft.[4] The Japanese have used the wood for decorative purposes,[16] and the Taiwanese have valued it as well.[4]

The juicy red cup around the seed seems to be edible (but not the toxic seed within),[24] with a mild cherry jello-like flavour [4]. The berry is said to have a sweet taste but slimy texture, however the leaves, bark and seed are extremely poisonous and should not be consumed. [27]


The chemotherapy drug paclitaxel (taxol), used in breast, ovarian, and lung cancer treatment, can be derived from Taxus brevifolia and other species of yew. As it was already becoming scarce when its chemotherapeutic potential was realized around the 1990s, the Pacific yew was never commercially harvested from its habitat at a large scale; the widespread use of the paclitaxel was enabled circa 2003 when a semi-synthetic pathway was developed from extracts of cultivated yews of other species.[4]

  • Pacific yew foliage underside
    Pacific yew foliage underside
  • Pacific yew form
    Pacific yew form
  • Pacific yew foliage
    Pacific yew foliage
  • Pacific yew mat form
    Pacific yew mat form
  • Pacific yew bark
    Pacific yew bark
  • Color variations of bark on Pacific yew
    Color variations of bark on Pacific yew

Notes

  1. ^ Further, one recommendation strongly discourages taxonomists from "elevating a 'variety' to a 'subspecies' unless there is sufficient scientific evidence to warrant such an elevation," and that "it is crucial to provide continuity."[11]

References

  1. ^ Thomas, P. (2013). "Taxus brevifolia". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T34041A2841142. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T34041A2841142.en. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  2. ^ Tropicos
  3. ^ The Plant List
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Arno, Stephen F.; Hammerly, Ramona P. (2020) [1977]. Northwest Trees: Identifying & Understanding the Region's Native Trees (field guide ed.). Seattle: Mountaineers Books. pp. 181–186. ISBN 978-1-68051-329-5. OCLC 1141235469.
  5. ^ a b c d e Spjut, R. W. 2007. Taxonomy and nomenclature of Taxus. J. Bot. Res. Inst. Texas 1(1): 203–289.
  6. ^ Web page, World Botanical Associates, Taxus brevifolia var. reptaneta; http://www.worldbotanical.com/taxus_brevifolia_var_reptaneta.htm. Retrieved 9 Dec 2014
  7. ^ Stearn, W. T. 1983. Botanical Latin. 3rd ed. David & Charles, London
  8. ^ Möller M, Gao L-M, Mill RR, Liu J, Zhang D-Q, Poudel RC, Li D-Z, 2013. A multidisciplinary approach reveals hidden taxonomic diversity in the morphologically challenging Taxus wallichiana complex. Taxon 62: 1161–1177.
  9. ^ Gao L-M, Möller M, Zhang X-M, Hollingsworth ML, Liu J, Mill RR, Gibby M, Li D-Z, 2007. High variation and strong phylogeographic pattern among cpDNA haplotypes in Taxus wallichiana (Taxaceae) in China and North Vietnam. Molec. Ecol. 16: 4684–4698.
  10. ^ Pilger R, 1903. Taxaceae-Taxoideae—Taxeae. Taxus. In: Das Pflanzenreich IV (Engler A. ed.): 110–116.
  11. ^ Ellison AM, Davis CC, Calie PJ, Naczi RFC, 2014. Pitcher plants (Sarracenia) provide a 21st-century perspective on infraspecific ranks and interspecific hybrids: A modest proposal for appropriate recognition and usage. Syst. Bot. 39: 939–949.
  12. ^ Florin R, 1951. Evolution in cordaites and conifers. Acta Horti Berg. 16: 285–388, plate
  13. ^ Web page, World Botanical Associates, Overview of the genus Taxus, http://www.worldbotanical.com/TAXNA.HTM, retrieved 9 Dec 2014
  14. ^ Web page, World Botanical Associates, Taxus brevifolia var. polychaeta; http://www.worldbotanical.com/taxus_brevifolia_var_polychaeta.htm; retrieved 9 Dec 2014
  15. ^ Spjut, R. W. 1977. USDA, ARS Memorandum, July 14]. Taxus brevifolia (Taxaceae) reviewed by GMC (Gudrun M. Christensen). A review of literature on taxonomy, ecology, and geographical distribution of the species, including its description, summary of geographical distribution by state or province, and literature reviewed. Distributed periodically during 1981-1992 by the National Cancer Institute to prospective suppliers, without reference to the author, for solicitations of contract bids on up to 30 tons of bark.
  16. ^ a b c Bolsinger, Charles; Jaramillo, Annabelle (1990). Russell M Burns; Barbara H. Honkala (eds.). "Taxus brevifolia Nutt. - Pacific Yew". Silvics of North America (Agriculture Handbook #654). 1 - Conifers. USDA, USFS: 573–579. Retrieved April 26, 2018.Free access icon
  17. ^ Hitchcock, C. H., A.J. Cronquist, F. M. Ownbey & J. W. Thompson. 1969. Vascular Cryptogams, Gymnosperms, and Monocotyledons. 1: 1–914. In C. L. Hitchcock Vascular Plants of the Pacific Northwest. University of Washington Press, Seattle.
  18. ^ Hultén, E. 1968. Flora Alaska i–xxi, 1–1008. Stanford University Press, Stanford.
  19. ^ Moss, E. H. 1983. Flora of Alberta (ed. 2) i–xii, 1–687. University of Toronto Press, Toronto.
  20. ^ Munz, P. A. & D. D. Keck. 1959. California Flora 1–1681. University of California Press, Berkeley.
  21. ^ Welsh, S. L. 1974. Anderson's Flora of Alaska and Adjacent Parts of Canada i–xvi, 1–724. Brigham Young University Press, Provo.
  22. ^ Mitchell, A. (1998). "Acclimation of Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) foliage to sun and shade". Tree Physiology. 18 (11): 749–757. doi:10.1093/treephys/18.11.749. PMID 12651409.
  23. ^ Scher, Stanley; Schwarzschild, Bert (1989). "Pacific Yew: a Faculative Riparian Conifer with an Uncertain Future" (PDF).
  24. ^ a b c Whitney, Stephen (1985). Western Forests (The Audubon Society Nature Guides). New York: Knopf. p. 364. ISBN 0-394-73127-1.
  25. ^ Chestnut, V. K. 1902 Plants Used by the Indians of Mendocino County, California. Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium 7:295-408. (p. 305)
  26. ^ Chesnut, Victor King (1902). Plants used by the Indians of Mendocino County, California. Government Printing Office. p. 408. Retrieved 24 August 2012.
  27. ^ MacKinnon, Andy (2009). Edible and Medicinal Plants of Canada. Lone Pine Publishing. p. 78. ISBN 978-1551055725.

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