A poet laureate (plural: poets laureate)[1][2][3] is a poet officially appointed by a government or conferring institution, typically expected to compose poems for special events and occasions. Albertino Mussato of Padua and Francesco Petrarca (Petrarch) of Arezzo were the first to be crowned poets laureate after the classical age, respectively in 1315 and 1342.[4] In Britain, the term dates from the appointment of Bernard André by Henry VII of England. The royal office of Poet Laureate in England dates from the appointment of John Dryden in 1668.
The office is also popular with regional and community groups. Examples include the Pikes Peak Poet Laureate,[6] which is designated by a "Presenting Partners" group from within the community, the Minnesota poet laureate chosen by the League of Minnesota Poets (est. 1934),[7] the Northampton Poet Laureate[8] chosen by the Northampton Arts Council,[9] and the Martha's Vineyard Poet Laureate chosen by ten judges representing the Martha's Vineyard Poetry Society.
Over a dozen national governments continue the poet laureate tradition.
Background
In ancient Greece, the laurel was used to form a crown or wreath of honour for poets and heroes. The custom derives from the ancient myth of Daphne and Apollo (Daphne signifying "laurel" in Greek), and was revived in Padua for Albertino Mussato,[10] followed by Petrarch's own crowning ceremony in the audience hall of the medieval senatorial palazzo on the Campidoglio on April 8, 1341.[11] Because the Renaissance figures who were attempting to revive the Classical tradition lacked detailed knowledge of the Roman precedent they were attempting to emulate, these ceremonies took on the character of doctoral candidatures.[12]
Since the office of poet laureate has become widely adopted, the term "laureate" has come to signify recognition for preeminence or superlative achievement (cf.Nobel laureate). A royal degree in rhetoric, poet laureate was awarded at European universities in the Middle Ages. The term therefore may refer to the holder of such a degree, which recognized skill in rhetoric, grammar, and language.
On 30 January 2023, at the launch of 'Revive', Australia's new cultural policy, Prime Minister Anthony Albanese announced “the establishment of a poet laureate for Australia”.[26] Before 2023, Australia had not had an official poet laureate scheme, despite past suggestions.[27][28] In 1818, former convict Michael Massey Robinson was paid by colony governor Lachlan Macquarie for services as poet laureate.[29] Over the years, other poets have been nominated as worthy of such a title, including James Brunton Stephens (1835–1902),[30]Andrew Barton 'Banjo' Paterson (1864–1941),[31] and Les Murray (1938–2019).[32]
The first Poet Laureate of Belgium, Charles Ducal, was chosen in 2014.[42][43] He was followed by Laurence Vielle,[42] Els Moors,[42] Carl Norac,[44] and Mustafa Kör.[44]
The Canadian Parliamentary Poet Laureate is appointed as an officer of the Library of Parliament. The position alternates between an English and French speaking laureate. Candidates must be able to write in both English and French, have a substantial publication history (including poetry) displaying literary excellence and have written work reflecting Canada, among other criteria.[52]
Comox Valley has had three poets laureate: Lawrence J.W. Cooper (2019-2021), Natalie Nickerson (2017-2019), and Kevin Flesher (2015-2017).[65]
The Poets Laureate of Nanaimo include Kamal Parmar (2021-2023), Tina Biello (2017 – 2020), and Naomi Beth Wakan (2013 – 2016).[66]
New Westminster's Poets Laureate are Elliott Slinn (2021–present), Alan Hill (2017 – 2020), Candice James (2010 – 2016), Don Benson (1999 – 2007), and Edna Anderson (1998 – 1999) [67]
Tofino's poets laureate are Christine Lowther (2020-2022) and Joanna Streetly (2018 – 2020)[69]
Vancouver's poets laureate are Fiona Tinwei Lam (2021–present), Miss Christie Lee (Christie Charles) (2018-2021), Rachel Rose (2014 – 2017), Evelyn Lau (2011 – 2014), Brad Cran (2009 – 2011), and George McWhirter (2007 – 2009).[70]
Fredericton's Poets Laureate are Jordan Trethewey (2021–present), Jenna Lyn Albert (2019 – 2021) and Ian Letourneau (2016 – 2018).
Moncton's poets laureate or Poets Flyé-es are Kayla Geitzler (English) and Jean-Philippe Raîche (French) (2019 – Present) [73]
Sackville's poets laureate are Laura K. Watson (2021–present)[74] Shoshanna Wingate (2019 – 2021), Marilyn Lerch (2013 – 2017), and Douglas Lochhead (2002 – 2011).[75]
Halifax poets laureate are Dr. Afua Cooper (2018 – 2020), Rebecca Thomas (2016 – 2018), El Jones (2013 – 2015), Tanya Davis (2011 – 2012), Shauntay Grant (2009 – 2011), Lorri Neilsen Glenn (2005 – 2009), and Sue MacLeod (2001 – 2005).[79]
Ottawa's poets laureate are Albert Dumont (Anglophone) (2021-2022) and Gilles Latour (Francophone) (2021-2022), Margaret Michèle Cook (Francophone) and Diana Young (Anglophone) (2019 – 2021), Andrée Lacelle (Francophone) and Jamaal Jackson Rogers (Anglophone) (2017 – 2019).[91]
Owen Sound's poets laureate are Richard-Yves Sitoski (2019 – 2022), Lauren Best (2017-2019), Rob Rolfe & Larry Jensen (2015 – 2017), Terry Burns (2013 – 2014), Kateri Akiwenzie-Damm (2011 – 2012), Kristan Anderson (2008 – 2010), Liz Zetlin (2007 – 2008).[92]
Greater Sudbury's poets laureate are Kyla Heming (2022–present), Vera Constantineau (2020-2022), Chloé LaDuchesse (2018 – 2020), Kim Fahner (2016 – 2018), Thomas Leduc (2014 – 2015), Daniel Aubin (2012 – 2013), and Roger Nash (2010 – 2011) [93][94]
The city of Windsor poets laureate are Mary Ann Mulhern (2019 – 2022), Marty Gervais (2011 – 2019), Vanessa Shields (April 2022- September 2022), and Peter Hrastovec (2023 - 2027).[96]
The city of Woodstock posthumously named Barry C. Butson poet laureate emeritus.[97]
During the 19th century, after the Turks invaded Cyprus, Mufti Hilmi Efendi was appointed the poet laureate of Sultan Mahmud II.[114] In 1980, the World Academy of Arts and Culture awarded Cyprus-born Costas Montis the title of Poet Laureate.[115]
Czech Republic
In 1596, Bartholomaeus Bilovius was made Poet Laureate of Prague due in part to his royal connections.[116] Johann Christian Alois Mickl was crowned the Poet Laureate of Prague around 1730.[117]
In Ethiopia, the officially designated Laureate includes Tsegaye Gebre-Medhin. Tsegaye's award was granted in 1966 by His Majesty, Haile-Selasie II.[127]
The first known Poet Laureate of the German Empire is Conradus Celtes Protuccius (c. 1466). He was succeeded by Johannes Paulus Crusius (1616), Apostolo Zeno, and Pietro Metastasio (1729) among others.[136]
Poets Laureate of Malaysia include Muhammad Haji Salleh.[199] In the 20th century, Raja Haji Yahya was designed by the High Commissioner of the Malay States as the Poet Laureate of Perak.[200]
Mali
Poets Laureate of Mali include Ban Sumana Sisòkò.[201][202]
New Zealand has had an official poet laureate since 1998. Originally sponsored by Te Mata vineyards and known as the Te Mata Estate Poet Laureate, the award is now administered by the National Library of New Zealand and the holder is called New Zealand Poet Laureate. The term of office is two years. The symbol of office is a Tokotoko, a carved wooden ceremonial orator's staff.
During the 18th century, Jam Durrak was appointed as the poet laureate of the royal court of Mir Nasir Khan I.[226] Later in Pakistan's history, Poets Laureate of Pakistan would include Hafeez Jalandhari.[227]
Poets Laureate of Tunisia include Qasim Shabi.[281]
Turkey
Mehmet Akif Ersoy (b. 1873–d. December 27, 1936), a famous poet, was the Poet-Laureate of Turkey. He composed the poem to be the National Anthem of the Turkish Republic that written in 1921. Original name of the poem is "İstiklal Marşı"
Uganda
Poets Laureate of Uganda include Akena Adoko.[282]
In England, the term "poet laureate" is restricted to the official office of Poet Laureate, attached to the royal household. However, no authoritative historical record exists of the office of Poet Laureate of England.
The office developed from earlier practice when minstrels and versifiers were members of the king's retinue. Richard Cœur-de-Lion had a versificator regis (English: king's poet), Gulielmus Peregrinus (William the Pilgrim), and Henry III had a versificator named Master Henry. In the fifteenth century, John Kay, a versifier, described himself as Edward IV's "humble poet laureate".
According to Wharton,[citation needed] King Henry I paid 10 shillings a year to a versificator regis. Geoffrey Chaucer (1340–1400) was called Poet Laureate, being granted in 1389 an annual allowance of wine. W. Hamilton describes Chaucer, Gower, Kay, Andrew Bernard, John Skelton, Robert Whittington, Richard Edwards and Samuel Daniel as "volunteer Laureates".
But I pray mayster John Skelton, late created poete laureate in the unyversite of Oxenforde, to oversee and correct this sayd booke.
The academic use of the term laureate became associated again with royalty when King James I created a pension for Ben Jonson in 1617, although there is no formal record extant. He was succeeded by William Davenant.
The royal office Poet Laureate was officially conferred by letters patent on John Dryden in 1668, after Davenant's death, and the post became a regular institution. Dryden's successor Shadwell originated annual birthday and New Year odes. The poet laureate became responsible for writing and presenting official verses to commemorate both personal occasions, such as the monarch's birthday or royal births and marriages, and public occasions, such as coronations and military victories. His activity in this respect varied according to circumstances, and the custom ceased to be obligatory after Pye's death. The office fell into some contempt before Robert Southey, but took on a new lustre from his personal distinction and that of successors Wordsworth and Tennyson. Wordsworth stipulated before accepting the honour that no formal effusions from him should be required. Due to his age, he became the only laureate to write no official poetry. Tennyson was generally happy in his numerous poems of this class.
On Tennyson's death there was a considerable feeling that there was no acceptable successor. William Morris and Swinburne were hardly suitable as court poets. Eventually the undesirability of breaking the tradition for temporary reasons, and severing the one official link between literature and the state, prevailed over the protests against allowing someone of inferior genius to follow Tennyson. Abolition was similarly advocated when Warton and Wordsworth died.
Edward Gibbon condemned the position's artificial approach to poetry:
From Augustus to Louis, the muse has too often been false and venal: but I much doubt whether any age or court can produce a similar establishment of a stipendiary poet, who in every reign, and at all events, is bound to furnish twice a year a measure of praise and verse, such as may be sung in the chapel, and, I believe, in the presence, of the sovereign. I speak the more freely, as the best time for abolishing this ridiculous custom is while the prince is a man of virtue and the poet a man of genius.
The salary has varied, but traditionally includes some alcohol. Ben Jonson first received a pension of 100 marks, and later an annual "terse of Canary wine". Dryden had a pension of £300 and a butt of Canary wine. Pye received £27 instead of the wine. Tennyson drew £72 a year from the Lord Chamberlain's department, and £27 from the Lord Steward's "in lieu of the butt of sack". The modern annual salary is £5,750.[285] On 10 May 2019 Simon Armitage was appointed[286] after the end of Carol Ann Duffy's ten-year tenure.[285]
There are other, non-official, laureate titles, such as the commercially sponsored "Children's Laureate" for an "eminent writer or illustrator of children's books to celebrate outstanding achievement in their field",[287] and the Poetry Foundation's Young People's Poet Laureate.[5]
Referred to as the Manx Bard, the individuals that have served in the position include Zoe Cannell, Michael Manning, and Jordanne Kennaugh.[294][295][296]
Poets laureate receive a US$35,000 stipend and are given the responsibility of overseeing an ongoing series of poetry readings and lectures at the library, and a charge to promote poetry. No other duties are specified, and laureates are not required to compose for government events or in praise of government officials. However, after the September 11 terrorist attacks, then poet laureate Billy Collins was asked to write a poem to be read in front of a special joint session of Congress. Collins wrote "The Names", which he read on September 6, 2002, and which is available in streaming audio and video.[297] The original intent of the stipend was to provide poets laureate with a full income, so that they could devote their time entirely to writing poetry. The amount has not been adjusted for inflation and is now considered a moderate bonus intended to supplement a poet's already existing income. Most Poets Laureate earn the bulk of their income through university employment.[citation needed]
A number of American state legislatures have also created an office of poet laureate. The holders may be locally or nationally prominent. The U.S. states of New Jersey, Massachusetts, Michigan, and Pennsylvania do not currently have a state poet laureate position.[299]
Originally created as the position of Poet Laureate in 1963 (House Resolution 25).[307] The official name was changed in 1996 to recognize and honor all genres of writing.[307] The position is selected by the Alaska State Council on the Arts.[308]
The state of California established a state Poet Laureate under Governor Hiram Warren Johnson[314] and appointed Ina Donna Coolbrith on June 30, 1915. Coolbrith was later acknowledged as the "Loved Laurel-Crowned Poet of California" by a 1919 state Senate resolution, retaining the title until her death in 1928.[315]Juan Felipe Herrera was appointed by Gov. Jerry Brown in March 2012.[316] The position is currently vacant. It was last held by Dana Gioia from 2015 to 2018.[317][318]
Counties
Kern County's first poet laureate was chosen in 2016: Don Thompson.[319]
Lake County's first poet laureate, Jim Lyle, was chosen in 1998.[320]
Ventura County appointed its first Poet Laureate, Mary Kay Rummel in 2014.[325] She was then followed by Phil Taggart in 2016. The current Poet Laureate in Ventura County is Luzmaria Espinosa.
Albany chose its first poet laureate, Christina Hutchins, in 2008.[326]
Anaheim selected its first poet laureate, Grant Hier, in 2018.[327]
Benicia appointed its first poet laureate in 2006, Joel Fallon. He was followed by Robert Shelby, Ronna Leon, Lois Requist, Don Peery, Johanna Ely, Tom Stanton, and Mary Susan Gast. Kathy Monroe was appointed on November 15, 2023.[328]
Berkeley selected its first Poet Laureate in 2017: Rafael Jesús González[329] Before this, in 2004, Julia Vinograd had been recognised officially as Berkeley's unofficial poet laureate.[330]
Cupertino's first Poet Laureate, Dave Denny, was selected in 2010.
Richmond's poet laureate program began in 2004 with three laureates: Brenda Quintanilla (student), Donte Clark (non-senior adult), Lincoln Bergman (senior).[338]
Poets are appointed to the position by the governor. The first poet laureate of Delaware was Edna Deemer Leach appointed in 1947.[355]Nnamdi Chukwuocha and Albert Mills—twin brothers who are known as the "Twin Poets"—were appointed 17th Poets Laureate of the State of Delaware on December 13, 2015.[356] According to the Library of Congress,[357] they are the first co-laureates appointed by a state and the first siblings to share the position.[358][359] Predecessors include Fleda Brown and JoAnn Balingit.[357]
Poets Laureate of Florida are appointed by the governor and the Division of Arts and Culture.[360] They first served lifetime, unpaid appointments, until June 20, 2014, when HB 513 established a four-year term. The first poet laureate of Florida was Franklin L. Wood,[361] appointed in 1929 and died soon after assuming office.[362]Vivian Laramore Rader was appointed in 1931 and served until her death in 1975. Edmund Skellings was appointed in 1980. A stroke that impaired his speech and limited his ability to do all of his official duties. He died August 19, 2012, leaving the post vacant.[361]Peter Meinke currently holds this position and was appointed on June 15, 2015.[362]
Prior to statehood Don Blanding, originally from Oklahoma, was unofficially referred to as the poet laureate of Hawaii.[364] In 1951 Hawaii Territorial Senator Thelma Akana Harrison in concurrent resolution 28, declared Lloyd Stone, who was originally from California, poet laureate.[365] When the modern program was established, Native Hawaiian Kealoha was appointed on May 3, 2012, by Governor Neil Abercrombie.,[366] and he is the first poet laureate for the state of Hawaii, serving through 2022.[367][368][369][370]
Irene Welch Grissom served from 1923 to 1948 as Idaho's first poet laureate.[371] Sudie Stuart Hager served as the second poet laureate from 1949 to 1982.[371] After 1982 the title was changed to Writer in Residence.[371]
The position was created July 1, 1999, by Subchapter 303.89 of the Iowa Code with a two-year renewable term.[381]Marvin Bell was Iowa's first Poet Laureate,[381] from 2000 to 2004, followed by Robert Dana from 2004 to 2008, and Mary Swander from 2009 to 2019. Debra Marquart is the current Poet Laureate of Iowa.[382] Her two-year term started in May 2019.[381]
Kate Barnes served as Maine's first poet laureate from 1996 to 1999. The current poet laureate of Maine is Julia Bouwsna.[386] Predecessors include Wesley McNair, Baron Wormser, and Betsy Sholl.[387]
The current Poet Laureate of Maryland is Grace Cavalieri.[388]
Cities
The city of Takoma Park Poet Laureate program, established in 2005, honors the achievements of a local poet, encouraging a wider appreciation of poetry and literature. Kathleen O’Toole currently holds the office. Poet Laureate emeritus include Donald Berger (2005-2007), Anne Becker (2007-2011), and Merrill Leffler (2011-2018).[389]
The state of Massachusetts does not currently have a poet laureate position.[390][391] However, many cities in Massachusetts have appointed poets laureate.
Cities
Miriam Levine was appointed the first poet laureate of Arlington in 2015[392]
Stephan Delbos was appointed the first poet laureate of Plymouth in 2020.[396][397]
Everett Hoagland[398] was appointed the first Poet Laureate of the City of New Bedford. Successors have included John Landry [399] and Patricia Gomes.[400] Sarah Jane Mulvey[401] is the current Poet Laureate of the City of New Bedford.
Michigan
Edgar A. Guest served as Michigan Poet Laureate from 1952 through 1959 having been appointed Poet Laureate through Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 38 (1952) of the Michigan Legislature.[402] State lawmakers made three separate unsuccessful attempts to reinstate a poet laureate position in 2000, 2005, and 2019.[402] In 2023, Nandi Comer was appointed poet laureate.[403]
In May 2007, Gov. Pawlenty reversed his opposition and signed Section 4, Chapter 148 of the Minnesota Session Laws 2007, establishing the state poet laureate. Robert Bly was appointed the first Minnesota poet laureate on February 27, 2008, succeeded on August 23, 2011, by Joyce Sutphen. Dr. Gwen Westerman was appointed as the third Minnesota poet laureate on September 9, 2021, by Governor Tim Walz.[404]
In 1963, Governor Ross Barnett appointed Mississippi's first Poet Laureate, Maude Willard Leet Prenshaw. In 1973, Louise Moss Montgomery was named laureate by Gov. William Waller. Gov. Cliff Finch appointed Winifred Hamrick Farrar laureate in 1978. All three poets laureate served lifetime terms. Beginning in 2012, Mississippi poets laureate now serve four-year terms. Natasha Tretheway served as the Poet Laureate of Mississippi from 2012 to 2016. On August 10, 2016, Beth Ann Fennelly assumed the position.[405]
New Jersey had a poet laureate program until from 2000 to 2003, appointing poet Gerald Stern followed by Amiri Baraka. The position was eliminated in 2003.
[412]
The state of Ohio created the position of Poet Laureate in 2014. Dr. Amit Majmudar of Dublin, Ohio, was named the first state Poet Laureate by Gov. John Kasich, for a two-year term beginning January 1, 2016. Kari Gunter-Seymour is the current Poet Laureate of Ohio. Her term began on June 10, 2020.[422]
Norman, Oklahoma, selected its first poet laureate, Dr. Julie Ann Ward, in April 2022.[428] Norman is the first city in Oklahoma to have its own poet laureate.[428]
Samuel John Hazo served as Pennsylvania's first and only poet laureate from 1993 to 2003 before Governor Bob Casey eliminated the position.[431]Florence Van Leer Earle Coates was elected poet laureate of Pennsylvania by the state Federation of Women's Clubs in 1915.[432]
Counties
Bucks County named Nicole Steinberg first poet laureate in 2021.[433]
Lancaster County's Lancaster Literary Guild named Barbara Buckman Strasko the first poet laureate of the county.[434]
The State Poet of Rhode Island, established in 1987, is codified in Chapter 42-100 of the State of Rhode Island General Laws.[436] The five-year appointment by the Governor carries an annual salary of $1,000.[437]
Michael Steven Harper served as Rhode Island's first poet laureate from 1988 to 1993.[438]
Charles "Badger" Clark was the first poet laureate of South Dakota appointed in 1937.[440]
The current poet laureate is Bruce Roseland. "It’s an honor to stand among those who have come before me,” Roseland said. “There are many people in South Dakota who write as well as I do and most of them write better. To represent South Dakota in this form of writing poetry … I’m very happy about it. I hope to be an ambassador."[441]
"Pek" Gunn, a native of Bold Spring, Tennessee, and a close friend and politically ally of former Governor of TennesseeFrank Clement, was the first Tennessean given the title of State Poet Laureate, in the 1970s. Margaret Britton Vaughn is the current Poet Laureate, she is serving her lifetime appointment since 1999.[442]
The state of Utah has appointed a Poet Laureate since 1997.[446] The first was David Lee (January 24, 1997, to December 2002), followed by Ken Brewer (January 24, 2003, to March 15, 2006), Katharine Coles (October 27, 2006, to May 2012), Lance Larsen, appointed May 3, 2012, by Governor Gary Herbert, and Paisley Rekdal, appointed by Governor Gary Herbert in May 2017.[447] The current Poet Laureate in Utah is Lisa Bickmore appointed in April 2022.[448]
The Commonwealth of Virginia has appointed a Poet Laureate since December 18, 1936. The first was Carter Warner Wormeley, appointed for life. Appointments from 1942 until 1992 were for one year, with many reappointed for multiple terms. In 1992, the term was increased to two years. Since 1998 appointments are made from list of nominees presented by the Poetry Society of Virginia, established at the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1923.[450] The current Poet Laureate is Luisa A. Igloria.[450]
The State of Washington has officially appointed a Poet Laureate since 2007,[451] though Poets Laureate have been unofficially appointed by the Washington State Federation of Women's Clubs since 1931, when Ella Rhoads Higginson was named as the State's first Poet Laureate.[452]
Samuel Green was named as Washington's first official Poet Laureate in 2007, and served until 2009.[453] Poets Laureate of Washington are appointed for a two-year term by the Governor of Washington.[454]
In the 14th-15th centuries, Uzbekistan-born Khoja Fakhriddin Ismatullah ibn Masud Ismat Bukhari was the poet laureate in the royal courts of Jalal-ud-Din Khalji and Ulugh Beg.[461] In later history, Poets Laureate of Uzbekistan include Muhammed Ali and Śukrullo.[462][463]
Venezuela
Poets Laureate of Venezuela include Heraclio Martín de la Guardia (c. 1878).[464]
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^Jakub Zdzisław Lichański, wybór i wstęp (1986). Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski poezje wybrane. Warszawa: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza. p. 104. ISBN83-205-3961-7.
^MacDonald, John (1964). MacKenzie, Annie (ed.). Òrain Iain Luim: Songs of John MacDonald, Bard of Keppoch. The Scottish Gaelic Texts Society. pp. xxxviii.
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