The hok/sok system is a postsegregational killing mechanism employed by the R1 plasmid in Escherichia coli. It was the first type I toxin-antitoxin pair to be identified through characterisation of a plasmid-stabilising locus.[1] It is a type I system because the toxin is neutralised by a complementary RNA, rather than a partnered protein (type II toxin-antitoxin).[2]
When E. coli undergoes cell division, the two daughter cells inherit the long-lived hok toxin from the parent cell. Due to the short half-life of the sok antitoxin, daughter cells inherit only small amounts and it quickly degrades.[3]
If a daughter cell has inherited the R1 plasmid, it has inherited the sok gene and a strong promoter which brings about high levels of transcription. So much so that in an R1-positive cell, Sok transcript exists in considerable molar excess over Hok mRNA.[5] Sok RNA then indirectly inhibits the translation of hok by inhibiting mok translation. There is a complementary region where sok transcript binds hok mRNA directly (pictured), but it does not occlude the Shine-Dalgarno sequence. Instead, sok RNA regulates the translation of the mokopen reading frame, which nearly entirely overlaps that of hok. It is this translation-coupling which effectively allows sok RNA to repress the translation of hok mRNA.[6]
The sok transcript forms a duplex with the leader region of hok mRNA and this is recognized by RNase III and degraded. The cleavage products are very unstable and soon decay.[7]
Daughter cells without a copy of the R1 plasmid die because they do not have the means to produce more sok antitoxin transcript to inhibit translation of the inherited hok mRNA. The killing system is said to be postsegregational (PSK),[8] since cell death occurs after segregation of the plasmid.[9][10]
hok/sokhomologues denoted flmA/B (FlmA is the protein toxin and FlmB RNA the antisense regulator)[14] are carried on the F plasmid which operate in the same way to maintain the stability of the plasmid.[15] The F plasmid contains another homologous toxin-antitoxin system called srnB.[11]
The first type I toxin-antitoxin system to be found in gram-positive bacteria is the RNAI-RNAII system of the pAD1 plasmid in Enterococcus faecalis. Here, RNAI encodes a toxic protein Fst while RNAII is the regulatory sRNA.[16]
Chromosomal toxin-antitoxin systems
In E. coli strain K-12 there are four long direct repeats (ldr) which encode short open reading frames of 35 codons organised in a homologous manner to the hok/sok system. One of the repeats encodes LdrD, a toxic protein which causes cell death. An unstable antisense RNA regulator (Rd1D) blocks the translation of the LdrD transcript.[17] A mok homologue which overlaps each ldr loci has also been found.[3]
IstR RNA works in a similar system in conjunction with the toxic TisB protein.[18]
^Gerdes K, Thisted T, Martinussen J (November 1990). "Mechanism of post-segregational killing by the hok/sok system of plasmid R1: sok antisense RNA regulates formation of a hok mRNA species correlated with killing of plasmid-free cells". Mol. Microbiol. 4 (11): 1807–18. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.1990.tb02029.x. PMID1707122. S2CID45453320.
^Thisted T, Gerdes K (January 1992). "Mechanism of post-segregational killing by the hok/sok system of plasmid R1. Sok antisense RNA regulates hok gene expression indirectly through the overlapping mok gene". J. Mol. Biol. 223 (1): 41–54. doi:10.1016/0022-2836(92)90714-U. PMID1370544.
^Gerdes K, Nielsen A, Thorsted P, Wagner EG (August 1992). "Mechanism of killer gene activation. Antisense RNA-dependent RNase III cleavage ensures rapid turn-over of the stable hok, srnB and pndA effector messenger RNAs". J. Mol. Biol. 226 (3): 637–49. doi:10.1016/0022-2836(92)90621-P. PMID1380562.
^Thisted T, Sørensen NS, Gerdes K (1995). "Mechanism of post-segregational killing: secondary structure analysis of the entire Hok mRNA from plasmid R1 suggests a fold-back structure that prevents translation and antisense RNA binding". J. Mol. Biol. 247 (5): 859–73. doi:10.1006/jmbi.1995.0186. PMID7536849.
^Loh SM, Cram DS, Skurray RA (June 1988). "Nucleotide sequence and transcriptional analysis of a third function (Flm) involved in F-plasmid maintenance". Gene. 66 (2): 259–68. doi:10.1016/0378-1119(88)90362-9. PMID3049248.
Poulsen LK, Larsen NW, Molin S, Andersson P (November 1989). "A family of genes encoding a cell-killing function may be conserved in all gram-negative bacteria". Mol. Microbiol. 3 (11): 1463–72. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.1989.tb00131.x. PMID2693900. S2CID41192501.
