Canada has served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every United Nations (UN) peacekeeping effort from its inception until 1989.[1] More than 125,000 Canadians have served in international peacekeeping operations, with approximately 130 Canadians having died during these operations.[2] Canada's strong support for multilateralism and internationalism has been closely related to its peacekeeping efforts.[3][4][5]
Canada's role in the development of and participation in peacekeeping during the 20th century led to its reputation as a positive middle power.[6][7] Canada's successful role in mediating the 1956 Suez Canal Crisis gave it credibility and established it as a country fighting for the common good of all nations.[8][9] The Canadian public came to identify the nation's peacekeeping role as the country's top contribution in international affairs.[10][11][12]
Canada faced controversy over its involvement in some peacekeeping efforts resulting in a military reassessment in the late 1990s.[13] By the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts greatly declined, with its military participation reallocated to UN-sanctioned operations through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).[14] This military reallocation resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions, rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.[15]
The "golden age of Canadian diplomacy" refers to a period in Canadian history, typically considered to be the mid-twentieth century, when Canada experienced a high level of success in its foreign relations and diplomatic efforts.[24] In the early Cold-War years, Canada served as a mediator in international conflicts.[25] The notion of peacekeeping became deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from its closest ally, the United States.[26][11][27]
Lester B. Pearson, the Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs, had become a very prominent figure in the United Nations during its infancy and found himself in a peculiar position in 1956 during the Suez Crisis.[30] Pearson and Canada found themselves mediating a conflict involving their closest allies when the United States opposed the British, French, and Israeli invasion of Egypt.[31] During United Nations meetings, Pearson proposed to the security council that a United Nations police force be established to prevent further conflict in the region, allowing the countries involved an opportunity to sort out a resolution.[32] Pearson's proposal would intercede and divide the combatants, and form a buffer zone or 'human shield' between the opposing forces, offering to dedicate 1,000 Canadian soldiers to that cause was seen as a brilliant political move that prevented another war.[31][33]
Pearson would be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 and be called "the father of modern peacekeeping" for his role during the Suez Crisis.[34][35][36] He would go on to serve as the 14th Prime Minister of Canada from 1963 to 1968 overseeing the creation of the distinctly Canadian flag that is worn by Canadian peacekeepers.[37] During the Suez Crisis, Pearson was disturbed when the Egyptian government originally objected to Canadian forces in view of the fact that Canada's Red Ensign contained the same symbol (the Union Flag) used by the United Kingdom, one of the belligerents.[38]
High-profile UN peacekeeping missions involving Canada include those in Congo (1961), Cyprus (1964), Lebanon (1978), Angola (1989), Somalia (1992), Rwanda (1993), East Timor (1999), Haiti (2004), Mali (2013), and observation missions in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights during the mid-1970s.[42] Canada also participated in multiple missions in the Balkans with the UN, NATO and the EU in Croatia from 1991-1995; Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1992-2010; Kosovo from 1998-1999; and the former Republic of Macedonia in 2001.[43]
Canada provided the most amount of UN peacekeepers during the Cold War with approximately 80,000 personnel – equivalent to 10 percent of total UN forces.[47][48] In all, more than 125,000 Canadian men and women military personnel, civilians, diplomats – including over 4,000 Canadian police officers – have served in peacekeeping operations.[49] Approximately 130 Canadians have died in service of peacekeeping operations, with 123 of these deaths occurring during UN missions.[2]
Canada's "high point" of participation took place in April 1993, when there was 3,336 Canadian UN peacekeepers,[55] with a record low number of 34 UN designated Canadian peacekeepers in August 2020.[55] In March 2024, there were 59 – including 18 women Canadians deployed in UN peacekeeper missions, resulting in Canada being the 69th-largest, out of 120, personnel contributor.[56] Canada's military in the same period had over 3,000 personnel deployed overseas in multiple non-UN operations.[57] Canada has been criticized domestically and internationally for its non-fulfillment of UN personnel commitments in the 21st century.[12][58][59][60]
Assessments of peacekeeping operations deemed they are generally successful, usually resulted in long-term peace.[61] The post–Cold War era has seen the concept and practice of peacekeeping evolve significantly.[62] Traditionally focused on ceasefire monitoring and maintaining stability in conflict zones, peacekeeping missions evolved to have a wider range of activities including; peace enforcement, protecting civilians, promoting human rights, and supporting political processes in post-conflict societies.[63]
Critics argue that Canadian personnel may not consistently had the necessary training or resources to successfully navigate complex and volatile environments, leading to mixed results in their peacekeeping and peace enforcement efforts.[64] Other criticisms include the perceived lack of clear objectives and mission parameters.[11]
Canadian troops and the UN system have been accused of failing to adequately protect civilian populations in conflict zones,[73] notably in 1994 when Canadian troops were deployed to the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda. The mission was criticized for the perceived failure to prevent or intervene in the genocide that occurred, despite Canadian General Roméo Dallaire warning top UN officials of an impending humanitarian crisis.[74][75] On 11 January 1994, General Dallaire, commander of UNAMIR, sent his "now infamous genocide fax" to UN headquarters, stating [the informant] has been ordered to register all Tutsi in Kigali to prepare "for their extermination".[74]
A period of reassessment took place in late 1990s within the Canadian military and the United Nations after the Somalia and Rwanda missions.[76] This led to the UN Security Council reducing the number of new operations,[77] and thus a significant decline in Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts.[2] Canada began redeploying its military efforts to multilateral UN-sanctioned operations through NATO, rather than directly to the UN by the turn of the century.[14] Despite the military reallocation the Canadian public views its smaller peacekeeping efforts in the 21st century as its "most important contribution to the world".[12]
The military reallocation in the 21st century resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions, where Canadian troops were tasked with combat and security support roles rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.[15] Most notably in several missions and campaigns in support of the global war on terror.[78][79]Canada's participation in the Afghanistan war (2001–2014) saw 165 Canadian deaths, the largest for any single Canadian military mission since the Korean War in the early 1950s.[80][81] Many within Canadian society expressed opposition to Canada's combative roles in Afghanistan on the grounds that it was inconsistent with Canada's historic role of peacekeeping.[82][83] The Canadian government rhetoric of peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peacebuilding in support of the Afghanistan war despite Canada's combat roles was a point of contention within Canadian society.[84]
The unpredictability of peacekeeping operations makes forecasting costs a challenging task for policymakers and budget planners.[86] Canada has always fulfilled its financial commitment to the UN by paying its dues "in full, on time and without conditions" unlike other nations.[12][86]
In 2022 Canada was the eighth-largest UN peace operations financial contributor with approximately $198.8 million for ongoing missions worldwide.[87] Canada in total allocated $2.49 billion to multiple UN organizations including those related to peacekeeping, policing, research, training, climate change and humanitarian efforts such as medicine and food distribution.[88] Canada's total military expenditure in the same period was approximately $26.9 billion, or around 1.2 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) — placing it 14th for military expenditure by country.[89]
Below is a list of high-profile UN peacekeeping missions undertaken by Canada from 1947 to present, with Canadian operational names listed when assigned.[99]
Date
UN operation
Location
Conflict
Canadian operation
1948–present
United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO)
Operation CAULDRON - October 1993 Operation PIVOT - March 1995 to April 1996 Operation STANDARD - April 1996 to Sept 1996 soldiers and civilian police[118]
1993–1996
United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR)
^Donaghy, Greg (2016). "The politics of accommodation: Canada, the Middle East, and the Suez Crisis, 1950–1956". International Journal: Canada's Journal of Global Policy Analysis. 71 (2): 313–327. doi:10.1177/0020702016643261. ISSN0020-7020.
^Gaffen, Fred (1987). In The Eye of The Storm: A History of Canadian Peacekeeping. Deneau & Wayne Publishers. p. 43.
^Anker, Lane (June 20, 2005). "Peacekeeping and Public Opinion". Government of Canada, National Defence, Canadian Defence Academy. Archived from the original on February 10, 2024. Retrieved February 26, 2024.
^Edgar, Alistair D. (2002). "Canada's changing participation in international peacekeeping and peace enforcement: What, if anything, does it mean?". Canadian Foreign Policy Journal. 10 (1): 107–117. doi:10.1080/11926422.2002.9673309. ISSN1192-6422.
^Keating, T.F. (2002). Canada and World Order: The Multilateralist Tradition in Canadian Foreign Policy. Oxford University Press. pp. 108, 112. ISBN978-0-19-541529-2.
^Gutiérrez-Haces, Maria Teresa (Nov 6, 2018). Identity and Otherness in Canadian Foreign Policy. Collection internationale d'Études canadiennes | International Canadian Studies Series. University of Ottawa Press. pp. 231–250. ISBN978-0-7766-2722-9. Archived from the original on March 4, 2024. Retrieved March 4, 2024.
^ abcdMassie, Justin (2019-04-30). "Why Canada Goes to War: Explaining Combat Participation in US-led Coalitions". Canadian Journal of Political Science. 52 (3). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 575–594. doi:10.1017/s0008423919000040. ISSN0008-4239.
^Antonini, Blanca (2015-07-09). Koops, Joachim A.; Tardy, Thierry; MacQueen, Norrie; Williams, Paul D. (eds.). United Nations Civilian Police Mission in Haiti (MIPONUH). Oxford University Press. p. 12. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199686049.013.53.
^"The Fall of Canadian Peacekeeping: Should It Be Revived?". NAOC. 2019-07-31. Archived from the original on 2024-03-14. Retrieved 2024-03-14. This event began the era of Canadian domination of peacekeeping. Canada ranks first in the amount of peacekeepers provided during the Cold War. During this time, Canada was also the only country to be a part of every UN peacekeeping operation. Canada provided 80,000 peacekeepers (10 percent of the UN total) before UN peacekeepers won the 1988 Nobel Peace Prize. All these accomplishments show that Canada used to be a world leader in peacekeeping.
^"Canada". United Nations Peacekeeping. Archived from the original on 2023-09-12. Retrieved 2024-03-15. Today (2024-03-15), Canada provides 59 uniformed personnel, including 18 women, to six UN peace operations making it the 69th-largest contributor. Its largest contribution of personnel is to the UN Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO), where 23 of its women and men now serve. Canada also contributes to the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA); the UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS); UN Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO); the UN Integrated Office in Haiti (BINUH); and the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP)
^Dorn, Walter (March 17, 2013). "Canadian Peacekeeping No Myth"(PDF). Royal Canadian Military Institute. Archived(PDF) from the original on March 8, 2024. Retrieved February 28, 2024.
^ abFoot, Richard (2 August 2019). "Canadian Peacekeepers in Somalia". www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. Historica Canada. Archived from the original on 12 March 2024. Retrieved 26 February 2024.
^"Canada and the War in Afghanistan". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Sep 11, 2001. Retrieved March 25, 2024. In total, 165 Canadians died during the war in Afghanistan (158 soldiers, 7 civilians). More than 2,000 members of the CAF were wounded or injured during the war.
^Anker, Lane (Jun 20, 2005). "Peacekeeping and Public Opinion". Government of Canada, National Defence, Canadian Defence Academy. Retrieved Apr 4, 2024.
^"Somalia Medal". Veterans Affairs Canada. March 25, 2009. Archived from the original on March 4, 2024. Retrieved Mar 4, 2024.
^Gough, P. (2002). "' Invicta Pax ' Monuments, Memorials and Peace: an analysis of the Canadian Peacekeeping Monument, Ottawa". International Journal of Heritage Studies. 8 (3): 201–223. doi:10.1080/1352725022000018903. ISSN1352-7258. S2CID159974425.
^"1 DOLLAR". The Royal Canadian Mint. Archived from the original on March 12, 2024. Retrieved Mar 12, 2024.
Coombs, Howard G; Deleuze, Magali; Brushett, Kevin; Doucet, Marie-Michèle, eds. (2023). Peacekeeping: Perspectives Old and New. McGill–Queen's University Press: Centre for International and Defense Policy. Martello Papers series 46. ISBN9781553396628.
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