Anopheles

nkọwa dị mkpirikpi|Ụdị anwụnta isiokwu dị mma cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc akpaka taxobox | onyonyo = Anopheles stephensi.jpeg | image_caption = Anopheles stephensi, nwanyị | taxon = Anopheles | ikike = Johann Wilhelm Meigen 1818 | mpaghara_ranks = Ụdị | mpaghara = Maka nkọwa zuru ezu, lee isi akụkọ: Anopheles nke Anopheles

Anopheles' (IPac-en|ə|ˈ|n|ɒ|f|ᵻ|l|iː|z) bụ anwụnta nke onye German entomologist Johann Wilhelm Meigen|J. W. Meigen kọwara na mbụ na 1818, a makwaara ha dị ka anwụnta mbọ na anwụnta ala mmiri.[1]Ọtụtụ anwụnta ndị dị otu a bụ ọrịa vector nke nje ahụ Plasmodium, ụdị protozoans nke na-akpata ịba na ụdị Plasmodium na-ebute nje nnụnụ, ụdị Plasmodium na-ebute nje anụ na-akpụ akpụ, na ụdị Plasmodium na-ebute nje ma ọ bụghị anụmanụ, gụnyere ụmụ mmadụ. Anwụnta Anopheles gambiae bụ ụdị anwụnta a ma ama nke a na-ebufe Plasmodium falciparum, nke bụ ọrịa ịba Parasitism parasite nke na-egbu mmadụ; ọ dịghị ụdị anwụnta ọzọ nke na-ebute ịba mmadụ.


Ụdị "Anopheles" dị iche na anwụnta ndị ọzọ dị ihe dị ka Ma 100 (myrmya), dịka anwụnta ndị ọzọ, àkwá, larvae, na pupae bụ anụmanụ mmiri. Nnwale "Anopheles" enweghị mmiri iku ume nke ọ ga-esi na ya eku ume, ya mere ọ na-eku ume ma na-eri nri na ahụ ya kwụ ọtọ n'elu mmiri. Anwụnta toro eto na-esi n'elu pụta ma na-eri nectar nke okooko osisi; anwụnta nwanyị na-erikwa ọbara, nke nri anụmanụ na-enye ha ohere ibu ma na-ebufe nje n'etiti ndị ọbịa. Ọnọdụ nri onye toro eto dị n'ala, n'adịghị ka ọnọdụ kwụ ọtọ nke culicines. "Anopheles" na-ekesa ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ụwa niile, n'oge okpomọkụ, n'okpuru ala okpomọkụ, na mpaghara dị jụụ nke ụwa. N'oge ihu igwe na-ekpo ọkụ, "Anopheles" aestivate, nke bụ ọnọdụ ụra nke na-eme ka anwụnta dị ndụ na mpaghara kpọrọ nkụ na-ekpo ọkụ, dị ka Sahel.

Mmalite

Akụkọ ihe mere eme nke fosil

Fossil nke ụdị 'Anopheles' dị ụkọ; naanị abụọ ka achọpụtara na 2015.[2] They are Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) dominicanus Zavortink & Poinar in Dominican Republic amber from the Late Eocene Ma|40.4 to Ma 33.9,[3] and Anopheles rottensis Statz in German amber from the Late Oligocene Ma|28.4 to Ma|23.0.[2]

Phylogeny

Ndị nna ochie nke Ijiji niile gụnyere anwụnta pụtara Ma 260..[4] The Culicinae culicine and Anopheles clades of mosquitoes diverged between Ma120 and Ma|150.[4][5] The Old and New World Anopheles species subsequently diverged between Ma|80 and Ma|95.[4][5] Anopheles darlingi diverged from the African and Asian malaria vectors ~Ma|100.[6] The cladogram is based on an analysis of mosquito genomes by Heafsey and colleagues in 2015:[6] |doi=10.1111/zsc.12137 |hdl=10141/612216 |s2cid=46364692 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>


Taxonomy

Ọ bụ onye German na-amụ banyere mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa Johann Wilhelm Meigen webatara aha mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa ahụ bụ 'Anopheles na 1818. Ọ kọwara ụdị abụọ, A. birfurcatus na ụdị ụdị, Anopheles maculipennis. O kwuru na aha ahụ pụtara lang|de|beschwerlich, "ihe dị arọ".[7] Ọ bụ na asụsụ Grik ochie ka esi weta ya lang|grc|ἀνωφελής transliteration|grc|anōphelḗs 'useless', derived from lang|el|ἀν- transliteration|grc|an-, 'not', 'un-' and lang|el|[[:wikt:ὄφελος|ὄφελος} óphelos 'profit'.[8]

Usoro nhazi nke ụdị mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa ahụ dị elu nke ukwuu na 1901 mgbe onye Bekee na-amụ banyere mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa Frederick Vincent Theobald kọwara ụdị mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa 39 nke "Anopheles" n'akwụkwọ mpịakọta 5 ya na Culicidae.[9] He was provided with mosquito specimens sent in to the British Museum (Natural History) from around the world, on the 1898 instruction of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Joseph Chamberlain.[10]

"Anopheles" (nke nwere nkesa zuru ụwa ọnụ) bụ nke ezinụlọ dị n'okpuru Anophelinae tinyere ụdị abụọ ndị ọzọ: "'Bironella" (nke e kewara na Australasia) na "Chagasia" (nke e kewara na Neotropics). Usoro a ka dịgidere nke ọma.[11][12] Classification into species is based on morphological characteristics – wing spots, head anatomy, larval and pupal anatomy, chromosome structure, and more recently, on DNA sequences.[13][14][15] In the taxonomy published by Harbach and Kitching in 2016, it was shown that three species of Bironella (Bironella confusa|B. confusa, Bironella gracilis|B. gracilis, and Bironella hollandi|B. hollandi) are phylogenetically more similar to Anopheles kyondawensis|A. kyondawensis than other Bironella species. That phylogeny argues that, based on genetic similarity, Anopheles implexus|A. implexus is divergent from the common ancestor of Anopheles.[10]

Usoro ndụ

Dịka anwụnta niile, anophelines na-agafe usoro anọ n'usoro ndụ ha: akwa (bayọlọji), larva, pupa, na imago|okenye. Usoro atọ mbụ bụ mmiri mmiri ma ha abụọ na-adịru ụbọchị 5-14, dabere na ụdị na okpomọkụ gburugburu. Oge okenye bụ mgbe nwanyị "'Anopheles'" na-arụ ọrụ dị ka malaria Vector (epidemiology). Ụmụ nwanyị toro eto nwere ike ịdị ndụ ruo otu ọnwa (maọbụ karịa n'agha), mana o yikarịrị ka ha agaghị adị ndụ karịa izu abụọ n'okike.[16]

Akwa

Anopheles eggs with their distinctive side floats

Ndị inyom toro eto na-etinye àkwá 50–200 kwa oviposition. Àkwá ndị ahụ dị obere (ihe dị ka Tụgharịa|0.5|mm|in|sigfig=1 × Tụgharịa|0.2|mm|in|sigfig=1). A na-etinye àkwá n'otu n'otu na ozugbo n'ime mmiri. Ha pụrụ iche n'ihi na ha nwere ihe ndị na-ese n'elu mmiri n'akụkụ abụọ ahụ. Àkwá anaghị anabata nkụ ma ọ bụ ịpụta n'ime ụbọchị 2–3, ọ bụ ezie na ịmụpụta nwere ike were izu abụọ maọbụ atọ n'ebe oyi na-atụ.[16]

Larvae

Nwa anwụnta ahụ nwere isi ya nke ọma, nke nwere ahịhịa ọnụ e ji enye nri, nnukwu Thorax (ahụ ahụhụ) na akụkụ itoolu afọ. O nweghị ụkwụ. Ọdịghị ka anwụnta ndị ọzọ, larva "'Anopheles enweghị siphon iku ume, ya mere ọ na-eguzo onwe ya ka ahụ ya wee dị n'elu mmiri. N'aka nke ọzọ, larva nke anwụnta culicine na-arapara n'elu mmiri site na siphon azụ, ahụ na-atụ aka ala. Larvae na-eku ume site na Spiracle (arthropods) dị na akụkụ afọ nke asatọ, ya mere ọ ga-abịa n'elu elu ugboro ugboro. Larvae ahụ na-etinye oge ha niile na-eri algae, bacteria, na nje ndị ọzọ dị n'ime akwa dị gịrịgịrị. Ha na-amaba n'okpuru elu ahụ naanị mgbe a kpasuru ha iwe. Larvae na-egwu mmiri site na mmegharị ahụ dum ma ọ bụ site na Mmiri propulsion site na iji ahịhịa ọnụ.[16]

Larvae na-etolite site na usoro anọ, ma ọ bụ instars, mgbe nke ahụ gasịrị ha metamorphosis,metamorphose na pupae. Na njedebe nke mmalite ọ bụla, larvae na-akpụ akpụ, na-awụpụ exoskeletons ha, ma ọ bụ akpụkpọ ahụ, iji mee ka uto dịkwuo elu. Larvae ndị ahụ na-apụta n'ọtụtụ ebe obibi, mana ọtụtụ ụdị na-ahọrọ mmiri dị ọcha, nke na-adịghị emerụ emerụ. A chọtala larvae nke "Anopheles" n'ime apịtị mmiri dị ọhụrụ ma ọ bụ mmiri nnu, apịtị mangrove, ubi osikapa, olulu ahịhịa, nsọtụ iyi na osimiri, na obere ọdọ mmiri mmiri ozuzo nwa oge. Ọtụtụ ụdị a na-ahọrọ ebe obibi nwere ahịhịa. Ndị ọzọ na-ahọrọ ebe obibi na-enweghị nke ọ bụla. Ụfọdụ na-amụ nwa n'ọdọ mmiri mepere emepe, mgbe anyanwụ na-enwu, ebe ndị ọzọ na-ahụ naanị n'ebe ndị nwere ndò n'ime ọhịa. Ụfọdụ ụdị na-amụ nwa n'ime oghere osisi ma ọ bụ akwụkwọ axils nke ụfọdụ osisi.[16]

  • Anopheles larva
    Anopheles larva
  • Feeding position of an Anopheles larva (A), culicine larva with its siphon (B)
    Feeding position of an Anopheles larva (A), culicine larva with its siphon (B)

Pupae

Pupa (a makwaara dị ka tumbler) dị ka comma ma a lee ya anya site n'akụkụ. A na-ejikọta isi na Thorax (ahụ maka ụmụ ahụhụ)n'ime cephalothorax, afọ na-agbagharị n'okpuru ya. Dịka ọ dị na ụmụ ahụhụ, nwamba ahụ ga-abịa n'elu mgbe niile iji kuo ume, nke ọ na-eme site na opi iku ume abụọ na cephalothorax ya. Mgbe ụbọchị ole na ole gasịrị dịka nwamba, elu azụ nke cephalothorax na-agbawa agbawa, anwụnta toro eto na-apụtakwa.[16]

  • Pupa
    Pupa
  • A. maculipennis pupa, breathing at the surface
    A. maculipennis pupa, breathing at the surface

OKENYE YA

Resting positions of adult Anopheles (A, B) are more upright than that of Culicinae (C).

Dịka anwụnta niile, ụdị "Anopheles" ndị toro eto nwere ahụ dị gịrịgịrị nke nwere akụkụ atọ: isi, úkwù na afọ. Isi ahụ bụ nke pụrụ iche maka inweta ozi mmetụta uche na maka inye nri. O nwere anya na ụzọ abụọ dị ogologo, nke nwere ọtụtụ akụkụ Antenna (bayọlọji)|antennae. Antennae dị mkpa maka ịchọpụta isi ndị ọbịa, yana ebe ụmụ nwanyị na-amụ nwa.[16] Anwụnta nwanyị na-ebu "Plasmodium, nje ndị na-akpata ịba, na-adọrọ mmasị nke ukwuu na ume mmadụ na isi ọjọọ karịa anwụnta na-enweghị ọrịa.[17]

Isi ya nwere ogologo, nke na-apụta n'ihu proboscis nke e ji enye nri, yana maxillary palps abụọ. Palp ndị a na-ebu ndị na-anabata carbon dioxide, ihe na-adọta anwụnta nke na-eme ka anwụnta nwee ike ịchọta onye ọbịa ya. Thorax (ahụ maka ụmụ ahụhụ) bụ nke pụrụ iche maka ijegharị. A na-ejikọ ụkwụ atọ na nku abụọ na thorax. Afọ bụ nke pụrụ iche maka mgbaze nri na mmepe àkwá. Akụkụ ahụ a kewara ekewa na-agbasa nke ukwuu mgbe nwanyị riri nri ọbara. A na-agbari ọbara ka oge na-aga, na-eje ozi dị ka isi iyi nke protein maka mmepụta àkwá, nke na-ejupụta afọ.[16]


A pụrụ ịmata "Anopheles" site na anwụnta ndị ọzọ site na palps, nke dị ogologo dịka proboscis, yana site na ọnụnọ nke ihe mkpuchi ojii na ọcha dị iche iche na nku. A pụkwara ịchọpụta ndị toro eto site na ọnọdụ izu ike ha: nwoke na nwanyị na-ezu ike na afọ ha na-atụ aka elu, n'adịghị ka anwụnta culicine. Anwụnta ndị toro eto na-abụkarị ndị na-akpakọ n'ime ụbọchị ole na ole mgbe ha si n'ọkwa nwa pụta. N'ọtụtụ ụdị, ụmụ nwoke na-etolite nnukwu square, na-abụkarị n'oge mgbede, ụmụ nwanyị na-efekwa n'ime ìgwè ahụ iji kpaa. Oge site na àkwá ruo okenye dịgasị iche iche n'etiti ụdị, okpomọkụ gburugburu na-emetụtakwa nke ukwuu. Anwụnta nwere ike ịmalite site na àkwá ruo okenye n'ime obere ụbọchị ise, mana ọ nwere ike were ụbọchị 10-14 n'ọnọdụ okpomọkụ.[16]

Ndị ikom na-ebi ihe dị ka otu izu, na-eri nectar na isi mmalite ndị ọzọ nke sugar. Ndị ikom enweghị ike iri ọbara, n'ihi na o yiri ka ọ na-akpata mmetụta ọjọọ ma na-egbu ha n'ime ụbọchị ole na ole, ihe dị ka ndụ ha niile dịka nri naanị mmiri.diet. [18] Ụmụ nwanyị na-eri shuga maka ike, mana ha na-achọkarị nri ọbara maka mmepụta àkwá. Mgbe ha nwetasịrị nri ọbara zuru oke, nwanyị ahụ na-ezu ike ruo ụbọchị ole na ole ka ọbara na-agbari ma na-etolite àkwá. Usoro a dabere na okpomọkụ, mana ọ na-ewekarị ụbọchị 2-3 n'ọnọdụ okpomọkụ. Ozugbo àkwá ahụ tolitere nke ọma, nwanyị ahụ na-etinye ha ma maliteghachi ịchọ onye ọbịa. Usoro ahụ na-emegharị onwe ya ruo mgbe nwanyị ahụ nwụrụ. Ọ bụ ezie na ụmụ nwanyị nwere ike ịdị ndụ karịa otu ọnwa n'agha, ọtụtụ anaghị adị ndụ karịa otu izu ruo abụọ n'okike. Ndụ ha dabere na okpomọkụ, iru mmiri, na ikike ha inweta nri ọbara nke ọma ma na-ezere nchebe onye ọbịa.[16]

  • Morphology of female Anopheles
    Morphology of female Anopheles

Ọmụmụ ihe gbasara gburugburu ebe obibi

Nkesa

"Anopheles" bi ma n'ebe okpomọkụ a maara maka ịba dịka ndịda Sahara Africa, nakwa n'ebe oyi na-atụ. Ọrịa ịba na-efe efe emeela n'oge gara aga n'ebe oyi na-atụ, dịka ọmụmaatụ n'oge e wuru Rideau Canal na Kanada n'afọ 1820.[19]Ụdị "Anopheles" nke nwere ike ibufe ịba abụghị naanị n'ebe ndị ọrịa ịba na-agbasa, yabụ ebe ndị a na-ewepụ ha na-anọkarị n'ihe ize ndụ nke ịmaliteghachi ọrịa ahụ. [20]
Global distribution of Anopheles species covers both the tropics with numerous malarias, and colder areas not subject to malaria at the start of the 21st century.[20]

Ebe obibi

"Anopheles" chọrọ mmiri, ikekwe obere na oge ụfọdụ, maka ụmụ ahụhụ mmiri na ụmụ nkịta ha. Ebe obibi kwesịrị ekwesị sitere na ọdọ mmiri ruo na tankị mmiri, apịtị, olulu mmiri na ọdọ mmiri.[21]Otú ọ dị, ndị toro eto nwere ike ibi n'ógbè kpọrọ nkụ dịka savanna na Sahel nke Afrịka. Ha nwere ike ịga ebe dị anya site na mmiri, mgbe ụfọdụkwa ifufe kwesịrị ekwesị na-efesa ha ruo ọtụtụ narị kilomita. Ndị toro eto nwere ike inwe ahụ iru ala ruo ọtụtụ ọnwa n'otu oge, na-ehi ụra n'oge okpomọkụ kpọrọ nkụ, na-enye ha ohere ịnọgide na-enwe ahụ iru ala n'oge Africa oge ọkọchị [22] Further, Anopheles have been documented travelling in baggage, such as on aircraft.[23]

Parasiti

Nje nke "Anopheles" gụnyere Microsporidia nke ụdị "'Amblyospora, Crepidulospora, Senoma na Parathelohania[24]A na-ahụ usoro ndụ abụọ dị iche iche na Microsporidia. N'ụdị nke mbụ, nje ahụ na-ebufe site na ụzọ ọnụ ma ọ bụ ụdị ya na-adịghị ahụkebe. Na nke abụọ, ebe ụzọ ọnụ bụ ụzọ a na-esi ebute ọrịa, nje ahụ na-eri n'ime onye nwere ọrịa dị n'etiti. Ọrịa nke ụdị nku ụmụ ahụhụ na-abụkarị nke anụ ahụ kpọmkwem, ọ na-agụnyekarịkwa ahụ abụba. Nnyefe kwụ ọtọ (transovarial) na-emekwa. [25]

A mụọla nje bacteria Wolbachia maka iji ha eme ihe dị ka ihe na-achịkwa ọrịa.[26]

Ndị na-añụ ọbara anụ ọzọ

Ududo na-awụli elu Evarcha culicivora na-eri ọbara ọkpụkpụ azụ site n'ịchụso 'Anopheles nke nwanyị..[27]Ududo ụmụaka na-ahọrọ "Anopheles" karịa anụ oriri ọ bụla ọzọ n'agbanyeghị ma ọ bụ ọbara ka o bu. [28] Ududo ụmụaka ewerela omume njide anụ "Anopheles" nke a na-akpọ "Anopheles", na-eji ọnọdụ "Anopheles" eme ihe dị ka ihe e ji amata ha.[27] "Anopheles" nwere ọnọdụ izu ike pụrụ iche yana afọ ya gbagọrọ agbagọ. N'ọnọdụ a, ududo ahụ na-abịa site n'azụ anwụnta na n'okpuru afọ ya, wee si n'okpuru wakpo ya. ref name="Nelson Jackson 2006"> (2006) "A Predator from East Africa that Chooses Malaria Vectors as Preferred Prey". PLOS ONE 1 (1). DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0000132. PMID 17205136. </ref>

Ọrịa ịba na-efe efe

Isi mmalite ndị a kacha amasị maka nri ọbara

Ebe ọ bụ na ụdị "Anopheles" bụ naanị ihe na-ebute ịba, a mụọla ya nke ọma n'ịchọ ụzọ njikwa dị irè. Otu ihe dị mkpa gbasara omume bụ otú ụdị "Anopheles" si ahọrọ iri ụmụ mmadụ anthropophily ma ọ bụ anụmanụ dịka ehi ma ọ bụ nnụnụ (zoophily). Ndị "Anthropophilic" "Anopheles" nwere ike ibufe nje ịba site n'otu onye gaa na nke ọzọ. Ọtụtụ "Anopheles" abụghị naanị ihe na-akpata ịba ma ọ bụ nje, gụnyere ihe na-akpata ịba mbụ na ọdịda anyanwụ United States, Anopheles freeborni|A. freeborni.[29][30] However, the primary malaria vectors in Africa, Anopheles gambiae|A. gambiae and A. funestus, are strongly anthropophilic and are consequently major vectors of human malaria.[16]

Ohere nke ibute ọrịa ịba

Ozugbo anwụnta riri nje ịba, nje ịba ga-etolite n'ime anwụnta tupu ha ebute ọrịa nye mmadụ. Oge achọrọ maka nje ahụ itolite n'ime anwụnta (oge mpụga incubation) dị site na ụbọchị iri ruo iri abụọ na otu, dabere na ụdị nje ahụ na okpomọkụ. Ọ bụrụ na anwụnta anaghị adị ndụ ruo ogologo oge ka nje ahụ tolite, mgbe ahụ ọ naghị ebufe nje ọ bụla.[16]

Ọ gaghị ekwe omume ịtụle ndụ anwụnta n'okike ozugbo, mana emeela atụmatụ na-apụtaghị ìhè nke ndụ anwụnta kwa ụbọchị maka ọtụtụ ụdị "Anopheles". Atụmatụ nke ndụ kwa ụbọchị na Tanzania nke "A. gambiae", ihe na-ebute nje "Plasmodium falciparum" dị ize ndụ, dị site na 0.77 ruo 0.84, nke pụtara na mgbe otu ụbọchị gasịrị, n'etiti 77% na 84% adịla ndụ.[31] Ọ bụrụ na ndụ anwụnta a na-adịgide ruo ogologo ndụ anwụnta, ihe na-erughị pasent 10 nke ụmụ nwanyị "A. gambiae" ga-adị ndụ karịa oge ịnọ n'èzí ụbọchị 14. Ọ bụrụ na ndụ anwụnta kwa ụbọchị amụbaa ruo 0.9, ihe karịrị pasent 20 nke anwụnta ga-adị ndụ karịa otu oge ahụ. Usoro njikwa nke dabere na ọgwụ ahụhụ (dịka ọmụmaatụ ịgba ọgwụ fọdụrụ n'ime ụlọ) nwere ike imetụta ịba. Nnyefe (ọgwụ)|nnyefe site na mmetụta ha na ogologo ndụ ndị okenye karịa site na mmetụta ha na ọnụọgụ anwụnta ndị toro eto.[16]

Usoro nri na izu ike

Ọtụtụ Anopheles bụ crepuscular (na-arụ ọrụ n'oge mgbede ma ọ bụ chi ọbụbọ) ma ọ bụ abalị (na-arụ ọrụ n'abalị). Ụfọdụ na-eri nri n'ime ụlọ (endophagic), ebe ndị ọzọ na-eri nri n'èzí (exophagic). Mgbe ha nyesịrị nri, ụfọdụ anwụnta ọbara na-ahọrọ izu ike n'ime ụlọ (endophilic), ebe ndị ọzọ na-ahọrọ izu ike n'èzí (exofical). Enwere ike ibelata ịta ahụhụ site na 'Anopheles site na abalị, endophagic site na iji ụgbụ akwa e ji ọgwụ Ịnsektisaịdị gwọọ ma ọ bụ site na owuwu ụlọ ka mma iji gbochie anwụnta ịbanye (dịka ọmụmaatụ window screens. A na-achịkwa anwụnta Endophilic ngwa ngwa site na ịgba ọgwụ ahụhụ fọdụrụ n'ime ụlọ. N'ụzọ dị iche, a na-achịkwa vektọ exophagic/exophilic site na ibibi ebe ọmụmụ, dịka site na ijupụta ọdọ mmiri.[16]

Osisi afọ

Ebe ọ bụ na mbufe ọrịa site na anwụnta chọrọ iri ọbara, osisi afọ nwere ike inwe mmetụta na ọganiihu nke ọrịa nke anwụnta na-ebi. Ọtụtụ n'ime ụmụ ahụhụ na ụmụ ahụhụ na-enweta site na photosynthetic cyanobacteria, ebe n'ime ndị toro eto, bakteria gram-negative na Pseudomonadota na Bacteroidota phyla na-achịkwa nke ukwuu. Nri ọbara na-ebelata ụdị nje dị iche iche dị na afọ, na-eme ka nje bacteria na-amasị ha nke ukwuu.[32]

Njikwa

Person wearing personal protective equipment performing indoor residual spraying on a house to prevent mosquitoes.
Person wearing personal protective equipment performing indoor residual spraying on a house to prevent malaria.

Njikwa

Igbu ụmụ ahụhụ gụnyere ụzọ mbụ isi kpochapụ anwụnta ịba. Agbanyeghị, anwụnta, n'oge obere oge, nwere ike ịmalite iguzogide ngwa ngwa, dịka e mere n'oge mkpọsa Mkpochapụ Ịba Ahụ́ nke Mba Nile nke afọ 1950.[33]Ojiji nke ọgwụ ahụhụ n'ọrụ ugbo emeela ka ọnụọgụ anwụnta ghara iguzogide, nke pụtara na mmemme njikwa dị irè ga-enyocha maka iguzogide ma gbanwee gaa n'ụzọ ndị ọzọ ma ọ bụrụ na achọpụta na a na-egbochi iguzogide. [34]


Mkpochapu

Na 2016, a tụrụ aro usoro CRISPR-Cas9 njine drive iji kpochapụ Anopheles gambiae,,[35] by deleting the Doublesex|dsx gene, causing female sterility. Such a gene drive system has been shown to suppress an entire caged A. gambiae population[36] n'ime ọgbọ asaa ruo nke iri na otu, nke na-adịkarị ihe na-erughị otu afọ. Nke a ebutela nchegbu gbasara ma arụmọrụ nke usoro mkpali mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa yana mmetụta omume na gburugburu ebe obibi nke mmemme iwepụ ụdị ọrịa a. journal |last1=Taning |first1=Clauvis Nji Tizi |last2=Van Eynde |first2=Benigna |last3=Yu |first3=Na |last4=Ma |first4=Sanyuan |last5=Smagghe |first5=Guy |date=April 2017 |title=CRISPR/Cas9 in insects: Applications, best practices and biosafety concerns |journal=Journal of Insect Physiology |volume=98 |pages=245–257 |doi=10.1016/j.jinsphys.2017.01.007 |pmid=28108316|bibcode=2017JInsP..98..245T |url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8511395/file/8511396 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>Ya mere, a na-agba mbọ iji usoro njikọ mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa mee ka mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa nke iguzogide "Plasmodium" dịkwuo mma n'ime ụdị mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa ahụ, dịka ilekwasị anya na iwepụ mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa "FREP1" na "Anopheles gambiae". [37] Ndị nchọpụta na Burkina Faso emepụtala ụdị ero "Metarhizium pinghaense" nke e mepụtara site na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa iji mepụta nsị nke ududo ntanetị nke Australia; ikpughe ya na ero ahụ mere ka ọnụọgụgụ "Anopheles" daa site na 99% na nnwale a na-achịkwa. 

[38]

Hụkwa

Edensibịa

  1. ↑ Nail Mosquito. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. “Common Name: Nail Mosquito, marsh mosquitoes”
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 (2015-08-05) "Diversification of the Genus Anopheles and a Neotropical Clade from the Late Cretaceous". PLOS ONE 10 (8). DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0134462. PMID 26244561. 
  3. ↑ (2000-11-01) "Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) dominicanus sp. n. (Diptera: Culicidae) from Dominican Amber". Annals of the Entomological Society of America 93 (6): 1230–1235. DOI:[1230:ANDSND2.0.CO;2 10.1603/0013-8746(2000)093[1230:ANDSND]2.0.CO;2]. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 (2010) "Complete mtDNA genomes of Anopheles darlingi and an approach to anopheline divergence time". Malaria Journal 9 (1). DOI:10.1186/1475-2875-9-127. PMID 20470395. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 {{cite journal |author1=Calvo, Eric |author2=Pham, Van M. |author3=Marinotti, Osvaldo |author4=Andersen, John F. |author5=Ribeiro, José M. C. |year=2009 |title=The salivary gland transcriptome of the neotropical malaria vector Anopheles darlingi reveals accelerated evolution of genes relevant to hematophagy |journal=[[BMC Genomics |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=57 |doi=10.1186/1471-2164-10-57 |pmc=2644710 |pmid=19178717 |doi-access=free}}
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 (2015-01-02) "Highly evolvable malaria vectors: The genomes of 16 Anopheles mosquitoes". Science 347 (6217). DOI:10.1126/science.1258522. PMID 25554792. 
  7. ↑ Meigen, Johann Wilhelm (1818). Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten Europäischen zweiflügeligen Insekten (in de). Aachen: Friedrich Wilhelm Forstmann, 10–12. 
  8. ↑ Stevenson, Angus (19 August 2010). Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957112-3. 
  9. ↑ Theobald, Frederick Vincent (1901). A Monograph of the Culicidae, or Mosquitoes. London: British Museum (Natural History), 115–214. ISBN 978-1-178-51903-7. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 (January 2016) "The phylogeny of Anophelinae revisited: inferences about the origin and classification of Anopheles (Diptera: Culicidae)". Zoologica Scripta 45: 34–47. DOI:10.1111/zsc.12137. 
  11. ↑ (2003) "Molecular Systematics of Anopheles: From Subgenera to Subpopulations". Annual Review of Entomology 48 (1): 111–139. DOI:10.1146/annurev.ento.48.091801.112647. PMID 12208816. 
  12. ↑ (1998) "Evolution and Systematics of Anopheles:Insights from a Molecular Phylogeny of Australasian Mosquitoes". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 9 (2): 262–275. DOI:10.1006/mpev.1997.0457. PMID 9562985. 
  13. ↑ (2006) "Illustrated keys to the mosquitoes of Thailand. IV. Anopheles". The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 37 (Suppl 2): 1–128. PMID 17262930. 
  14. ↑ (2007) "Genetic diversity and molecular identification of mosquito species in the Anopheles maculatus group using the ITS2 region of rDNA". Infection, Genetics and Evolution 7 (1): 93–102. DOI:10.1016/j.meegid.2006.05.001. PMID 16782411. 
  15. ↑ (2005) "Morphological assessment and molecular phylogenetics of the Funestus and Minimus groups of Anopheles (Cellia)". Journal of Medical Entomology 42 (4): 522–536. DOI:10.1093/jmedent/42.4.522. PMID 16119539. 
  16. ↑ 16.00 16.01 16.02 16.03 16.04 16.05 16.06 16.07 16.08 16.09 16.10 16.11 16.12 citation-attribution|1=Life Cycle of Anopheles Mosquitoes. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (May 14, 2024).
  17. ↑ (2013-05-15) "Malaria Infected Mosquitoes Express Enhanced Attraction to Human Odor". PLOS ONE 8 (5). DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0063602. PMID 23691073. 
  18. ↑ (2016-01-26) "Toxic Effect of Blood Feeding in Male Mosquitoes". Frontiers in Physiology 7. DOI:10.3389/fphys.2016.00004. PMID 26858651. 
  19. ↑ Wylie WNT (1983). "Poverty, Distress, and Disease: Labour and the Construction of the Rideau Canal, 1826–32". Labour/Le Travail 11: 7–29. DOI:10.2307/25140199. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 CDC - Malaria - About Malaria - Where Malaria occurs (April 9, 2020).
  21. ↑ Anopheles Mosquitoes.
  22. ↑ (2023) "Dried out but alive: how mosquitoes survive 8 months". Trends in Parasitology 39 (1): 1–3. DOI:10.1016/j.pt.2022.11.006. PMID 36470782. 
  23. ↑ (2020-05-15) "Detection of Exotic Mosquito Species (Diptera: Culicidae) at International Airports in Europe". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17 (10). DOI:10.3390/ijerph17103450. PMID 32429218. 
  24. ↑ (2008) "Ecology and epizootology of microsporidia in malarial mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) from the south of western Siberia" (in ru). Parazitologiia 42 (2): 139–150. PMID 18664069. 
  25. ↑ (1998) "Phylogeny of Amblyospora (Microsporida: Amblyosporidae) and related genera based on small subunit ribosomal DNA data: a possible example of host parasite cospeciation". Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 71 (3): 199–206. DOI:10.1006/jipa.1997.4725. PMID 9538024. 
  26. ↑ Mosquito Parasite Fights Infectious Disease (1 October 2009).
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 (2005) "Use of Anopheles-specific prey-capture behavior by the small juveniles of Evarcha culicivora, a mosquito-eating jumping spider". The Journal of Arachnology 33 (2): 541–548. DOI:10.1636/05-3.1. 
  28. ↑ Jackson, Robert R.; Cross, Fiona R. "Mosquito-terminator spiders and the meaning of predatory specialization." The Journal of Arachnology 43.2 (2015): 123–142.
  29. ↑ Carpenter, S. J.; LaCasse, W. J. (1955). Mosquitoes of North America (North of Mexico). Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. pp. 39–42. ISBN 0-520-02638-1.
  30. ↑ McHugh, Chad P. (1989-08-01). "Ecology of a Semi-Isolated Population of Adult Anopheles Freeborni: Abundance, Trophic Status, Parity, Survivorship, Gonotrophic Cycle Length, and Host Selection". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 41 (2): 169–176. DOI:10.4269/ajtmh.1989.41.169. PMID 2774063. 
  31. ↑ (1997) "Survival and infection probabilities of anthropophagic anophelines from an area of high prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum in humans". Bulletin of Entomological Research 87 (5): 445–453. DOI:10.1017/S0007485300041304. 
  32. ↑ (2011) "Dynamic gut microbiome across life history of the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae in Kenya". PLOS ONE 6 (9). DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0024767. PMID 21957459. 
  33. ↑ Malaria Control: Achievements, Problems, & Strategies. World Health Organization (1999).
  34. ↑ Biology: Anopheles Mosquitoes (tab 5). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (16 July 2020).
  35. ↑ (January 2016) "A CRISPR-Cas9 gene drive system targeting female reproduction in the malaria mosquito vector Anopheles gambiae". Nature Biotechnology 34 (1): 78–83. DOI:10.1038/nbt.3439. PMID 26641531. 
  36. ↑ (November 2018) "A CRISPR–Cas9 gene drive targeting doublesex causes complete population suppression in caged Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes". Nature Biotechnology 36 (11): 1062–1066. DOI:10.1038/nbt.4245. PMID 30247490. 
  37. ↑ (2018-03-08) "CRISPR/Cas9 -mediated gene knockout of Anopheles gambiae FREP1 suppresses malaria parasite infection". PLOS Pathogens 14 (3). DOI:10.1371/journal.ppat.1006898. PMID 29518156. 
  38. ↑ Gallagher, James. "GM fungus rapidly kills 99% of malaria mosquitoes, study suggests", BBC News Online, 31 May 2019.

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