A common theme in the Protestant Reformation is one of violence. This violence took place between Catholics and Protestants, peasants and lords, and radicals and moderates. Certain groups suffered more than others, with some groups coming close to complete destruction. Many of these groups were executed by their enemies on the premise of heresy and religious crimes. The deaths of these men and women were often commemorated with great stories of martyrdom. No matter their social standing, these martyrs were seen as the most pious of all of God’s subjects. The leaders of many of these groups promoted a “death before submission” approach. Taking the example of the first martyr, St. Stephen, and most importantly, of Jesus Christ, they would die without hatred of their persecutors. Instead, these men and women were led to believe that their ultimate sacrifice only cemented their place in Heaven, and were celebrated for their sacrifice.

The English Reformation’s beginnings were controversial to say the least. The unique institution of the Church of England created many problems for the citizens in the Isles. Reformist attitudes had existed in England for centuries, going back to Wycliffe and his suggestions for reforming Catholicism. When Henry VIII made the split from Catholicism official, it was a groundbreaking step in the Protestant Reformation. Though Henry’s church was only meant to be a institution of power for the monarchy, it slowly grew into a strong opponent of the Papacy. Protestantism also seeped into the Church of England as more men returned to the country after studying with Luther and other Protestant leaders in Continental Europe. But after King Edward’s death in 1553^[1], the religious atmosphere changed in England. The execution of Lady Jane Grey and the crowning of Queen Mary brought religious persecution on par with what had gone in Europe. English martyrs became an important aspect of Protestantism, as over 800 Marian Exiles fled to the Protestant refuges in Europe.^[2]

Lady Grey was the first victim in the bloody reign of Queen Mary. Not only was she supported by many prominent Protestants^[3], but she herself was a Protestant. Lady Grey also had a legitimate claim to the throne as her mother was Henry’s daughter, and Edward willed her to be Queen.^[4] Mary’s vow to rid England of all Protestants, and her desire to take the throne herself made Lady Grey an easy target. She was executed by Marian supporters on 12 February 1554 by beheading.^[5] The death of Lady Grey, and the arrest and execution of most of her supporters meant Mary could take the throne almost unopposed. Her next targets would be Protestant clergymen, as she hoped to reassert the Catholic tradition in England.

Three of the most important martyrs executed during Queen Mary’s reign were Nicholas Ridley, Thomas Cranmer, and Hugh Latimer. All three were renowned theologians and members of the clergy, and taught at the great universities in England. All three held reformist opinions and had supported Henry and Edward in spreading Protestant doctrine in Britain. Thus, when Mary ascended the throne, the three were targeted as enemies of the state. After imprisonment in the Tower of London, the Oxford Martyrs as they would come to be know as were burned at the stake on 17 October 1555^[6] (Latimer and Ridley) and 21 March 1556^[7] (Cranmer). The deaths of these important men threatened the existence of Protestant reformers in England. Cranmer’s death was especially important, as he had been one of Henry’s closest religious allies as well as a great influence on English reformist movements.

Though Mary’s persecution of Protestants in England was effective in its efforts to cull the growing reform movement, it was only a matter of time before the movement had reached its previous heights. Mary’s short reign and unpopular policies ensured that the Church of England continued to exist despite the executions of many of its top leaders. In fact, the Marian period may have strengthened Protestant sentiments in England. The large number of English exiles flocked to Protestant safe havens such as Calvinist Geneva.^[8] When Elizabeth took the throne, these exiles returned armed with anti-Catholic sentiments and Protestant teachings. They were also inspired by the tales of the great Marian martyrs who became symbols of Protestantism in England. The fact that the Church of England became increasingly Protestant in nature after the reign of Queen Mary showed her failure to crush the Protestant movement in England.

Protestantism in Continental Europe was characterized by widespread movements of reformists with differing ideas and attitudes. The more popular forms of Protestantism were led by former Catholic clergymen and leading theologians such as Martin Luther, Jean Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli. Their success in reforming the church in their respective cities was done with moderation and under the watchful eye of secular leaders. Their success in balancing church reform and state matter ensured that their followers were able to practice as Protestants without being subject to persecution. But with the wave of Protestant literature that spread throughout Europe, new radical reformers began preaching to the masses. Many of these radicals saw the Reformation as an opportunity to change the social and political atmosphere in Europe. The Peasants' War in Germany was a prime example of radicalism leading to violence. Hundreds of thousands were killed in the war and in other violence throughout the Reformation, many of whom were radical martyrs. Interestingly enough, these martyrs were not only killed by Catholics, but also by the more moderate Protestants.

The most important radical faction to come out of the Peasants' War was the Anabaptists, the predecessors to modern Mennonites.^[9] Anabaptists did not believe in infant baptism, as a child does not have a grasp of faith when they are born. Consequently, the Anabaptists would baptize only adults, and in many cases these adults would be baptized for the second time. This was deemed heretical by both the Catholics and Protestants, and the Anabaptists were persecuted by both factions.

As the new Protestant factions consolidated their power under leaders such as Luther, Zwingli and Calvin, the Anabaptists found followings in more rural settings. Though they had some success in urban centers such as Zurich and Wittenberg, they were driven out in the aftermath of the Peasants' War.^[10] Thousands of Anabaptists were executed between 1520 and 1650 by both Protestants and Catholics.^[11] The Protestants looked to legitimize their reformed version of Christianity, and the Anabaptist movement only seemed to mark Protestantism as radical. The most prominent leaders of the Reformation were much more moderate in their practices. The extent of their prosecutions of the Anabaptists was usually based on quelling radical movements in their areas. Ulrich Zwingli, the leader of the Protestant movement in Zurich, sought to quell the movement where it had began. He instituted edicts in 1515^[12], and 1530^[13] which outlawed adult baptism and made the Anabaptist movement illegal. Any person found to be a practicing Anabaptist would be executed. Actions such as these were taken in cities all over Germany, Switzerland and other Protestant cities. One of the first victims of the Zurich reforms was Felix Manz (Mantz), the co-founder of the Swiss Anabaptist movement (the Swiss Brethren).^[14] After being arrested, the council of Zurich found him to be guilty of re-baptism and condemned to death by drowning. His death was the first of many by Protestants seeking to crush the radical Anabaptist movement.^[15] As the years passed, thousands more Anabaptists were executed and forced to relocate to Eastern Europe and later, North America.

One of the most important radicals of the reformation was Thomas Muntzer. A German born Anabaptist (see below), Muntzer helped found the German Anabaptist movement^[16] and was especially interested in the mystical aspects of faith. His claims to having visions from God, and his controversial beliefs on the Catholic Church, infant baptism, and anti-intellectualism made him an enemy of many during the Reformation.^[17] Muntzer's greatest rival was Luther, and the two wrote many scathing critiques of one another during the 1520s. Muntzer claimed Luther's reforms were politicized and that he was a mere puppet of Princes, while Luther saw Muntzer and his movement as a threat against the ideas of Protestantism.^[18] Though Luther was the poster child of the Reformation in Germany, Muntzer was becoming exceedingly popular, especially among the poor common people. He preached his apocalyptic beliefs ( to the peasants^[19], claiming that the Rapture was imminent and that they needed to prepare the Earth for the coming of Jesus. Their preparations would include ridding themselves of sin and corruption, but also the corruption of Christendom. His spirited writings and sermons helped him gain support, and when the Peasants' War broke out, he fought with the people against the Imperial Princes and nobles. His increasing radicalism would eventually lead to his death. While leading a peasant army against the Imperial city of Frankenhausen, Muntzer was captured, tortured, and beheaded.^[20] His legacy as a radical martyr was important for later radical leaders and groups, but his life mirrored the radical movement. Much like early radical Protestantism, he was short lived, and his teachings seen as too extreme for the times. Muntzer was also unique as he, along with the radicals fighting in the Peasants' War, felt resistance not only from the Catholics but also the moderate Protestants as well.

Though the majority of martyrs in the Reformation were Protestants persecuted by Catholics, Michael Servetus' death was different. Born in Spain, Servetus was trained as a Catholic priest and doctor and he began studying humanist texts, along with the new Protestant literature of Luther.^[21] His examination of the Bible and other religious texts led him to develop ideas about the Trinity and baptism. There is no doubt that Servetus was a brilliant man, and was involved in subjects ranging from theology to medicine and law. It was his critical approach and unwavering search for the truth in scripture that led to his execution. Servetus enraged Catholics and Protestants alike with his claims of anti-Trinitarianism and his frustrating ridicule of Church practices.^[22] He was constantly on the run after publishing a series of documents relating to the trinity and other aspects of the church. His most controversial work was the Christianismi Institutio which was not only a re-iteration of his own beliefs, but a response to the beliefs of Jean Calvin.^[23] Calvin, the leader of the Protestant city of Geneva, was so angered by Servetus that he claimed he would execute him if he came to Geneva. Calvin even worked with the French Inquisition to attempt to capture and execute Servetus.^[24] While on the run from the French Inquisition, Servetus found himself in Geneva. Soon after arriving in Geneva in a disguise, Servetus was arrested while attending one of Calvin's sermons. This event alone showed the kind of man Servetus was. Though he had disguised himself, he still appeared at his enemies' own service surrounded by a hostile crowd. His zeal to reform Christianity and his willingness to die for his beliefs made Servetus a great example of a martyr. The fact that an effigy of him was burned by Catholics,^[25] and that he was actually burned at the stake by Protestants in Geneva showed the importance of Servetus and his ideas. Interestingly, though Calvin had attempted to bring Servetus to justice for many years, he suggested leniency in the execution.^[26] Calvin's reasons for this leniency may have been personal or political. It may have seen this act of kindness as a moral high ground, showing Calvin to be not only a better Christian, but also having the power to grant this mercy on Servetus. Nevertheless, petitions from the leaders of other Protestant communities chastised Calvin for his attempt at reason and mercy with the heretic, and he was burned at Champel, Geneva on October 27 1553.^[27]

1. Bainton, Roland H. 1960. Hunted Heretic, The Life and Death of Michael Servetus.

2. Baylor, Michael G. ed. 1991. The Radical Reformation.

3. Bailey, Alfred. 1892. A Legal View of Cranmer's Execution.

4. Bender, Harold S. 1950. Conrad Grebel: The Founder of the Swiss Brethren Sometimes Called Anabaptists.

5. Fox, John. 1563. Fox's Book of Martyrs.

6. van Braght, Thieleman J. 1660. Martyr's Mirror.

7. Walzer, Micheal. 1963. Revolutionary Ideology: The Case of the Marian Exiles.

8. Zuck, Lowell H. 1957. Anabaptism: Abortive Counter-Revolt within the Reformation.