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Editing: Audism https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audism

Comment: I'm still digging through the talk page - it's quite a mess! Hoping to get a better handle on the best sources for some of the points made on there in the coming days. Ms3630 (talk) 02:52, 27 February 2018 (UTC)

Topic of choice: Audism The article is heavily weighted in a way that is less encyclopedic and more opinion based. The voice is not neutral and often uses those scholarly sources to present their own opinions. I plan to restructure the page to clarify audisms historical and medical influence when it comes to Deaf Culture.

Plan: In History section, add audisms interaction with the History of Deaf culture, incorporating: 1.Colonial lens audism derives from 2.Influence of audist views on Deaf education (i.e. oralist movements around the world, restricted access to signed languages, protests)

3.Famous audists whose developments impacted the Deaf community (Alexander Graham Bell) 4.Famous people who opposed audism (Bauman, Ekhart, Ella Mae Lentz, etc)

Add a section about Audism and how it applies to Linguistics, incorporating: Influence on phonocentric views of language Discussion on redefining audist views

Add a section about Audism and it’s development within the Medical field, incorporating 1.Influence on Cochlear implant debate 2.Transformation of audist ideals

Audism is the notion that one is superior based on one's ability to hear or to behave in the manner of one who hears, or that life without hearing is futile and miserable, or an attitude based on pathological thinking which results in a negative stigma toward anyone who does not hear.^[1] Tom L. Humphries coined the term in 1975,^[2] but it did not start to catch on until Harlan Lane used it in his own writings.^{[citation needed]} Humphries originally applied audism to individual attitudes and practices; whereas Lane broadened the term to include oppression of deaf people.

History section EDITING: suggest revision to "Defining audism" or similar 168.122.93.108 (talk) 17:50, 12 March 2018 (UTC)

The principles and ideas behind audism have been experienced by the Deaf community for many centuries, but the term "audism" was first coined in 1975 by Deaf scholar Tom Humphries in his unpublished essay. Humphries originally defined audism as, "the notion that one is superior based on one's ability to hear or behave in the manner of one who hears." ^[3] Since then, other scholars, such as Harlan Lane in his book, Mask of Benevolence, have attempted to further expand on Humphries' definition to include different levels of audism: individual, institutional, metaphysical, and laissez-faire.^[4] As Humphries' definition stands, it only incorporates individual audism, which includes Deaf jokes, hate crimes, and low classroom expectations of Deaf people.

The idea of systemic, or institutional, audism in modern society was originally proposed in Harlan Lane's Mask of Benevolence, as an extension of David T. Wellman's concept of institutional racism.^[5] It was further expanded by H-Dirksen Bauman, in Audism: Exploring the Metaphysics of Oppression, and again, by Richard Eckert and Amy Rowley, in Audism: A Theory and Practice of Audiocentric Privilege, and institutional audism is now described as, "a structural system of exploitative advantage that focuses on and perpetuates the subordination of Deaf Communities of origin, language, and culture." ^[6]

Linguistic audism can occur by banning use of commonly used sign languages such as Indian Sign Language, American Sign Language and British Sign Language. Several schools have engaged in such prohibition in America in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and some continue to do so.^[7] Audism may also be found in deaf education and in other corporate institutions and groups that deal with deafness. In these cases, it is believed that the educators, administrators, and professionals within these organizations behave in a way that is meant to dominate or marginalize the deaf community.^{[citation needed]}

Dysconscious audism favors what is normal for the hearing community. This type of audism limits deaf culture and pride. This is done by creating an environment in which deaf people must conform to the ways of hearing society. It greatly impacts deaf education in terms of shunning American sign language in favor of communication that is based on the English language and more acceptable to people who are able to hear.^[8]

Additionally, deaf people can practice forms of discrimination against members of their own community, based on what they believe is acceptable behavior, use of language, or social association. Dr. Genie Gertz explored examples of such audism in American society in her published dissertation.^[9]

Audism can also occur between groups of deaf people, with some who choose not to use a sign language and not to identify with deaf culture considering themselves to be superior to those who do, or vice versa. This is a type of 'dysconscious' audism, a phenomenon which is discussed in an essay by Genie Gertz in Open Your Eyes: Deaf Studies Talking.

Active audism is when a person is knowingly engaging in audist behavior. The person knows the effects of audism, yet still engages in this behavior and has an audist attitude. Passive audism is when a person is engaging in audist behavior, yet does not have knowledge about the Deaf community. Passive audists do not think about how their actions or words concern deaf individuals, hearing individuals, or sign language. Passive audists act due to their lack of knowledge of the Deaf community and its culture.

The seeds of audism were reflected in the lack of early documentation and a misunderstanding of deaf people and their language. Limited evidence can be provided about the treatment of deaf individuals by ancient civilizations. However, the documentation that is provided shows a resistance towards deaf people as a functioning part of society. Aristotle's Poetics alluded that those labeled as "disabled" would be put to death for the benefit of the rest of society. During the time of the Renaissance, efforts to educate deaf individuals posed complications due to the lack of literacy from the vast majority of society, deaf and hearing alike. In New England during the pilgrimage to America, any variant from the category of the norm was grounds for witch craft or sorcery. ^[10]

Despite scholars' best efforts to incorporate all aspects of audism, still, there was another important facet of audism. Scholars noted that deaf people who used their voice had more societal rights than those deaf people who did not have the ability to speak. In attempt to quantify this relationship, Bauman extended the concept of phonocentrism proposed by Jacques Derrida, "the supremacy of speech and repression of nonphonetic forms of communication," and developed the term, metaphysical audism. Metaphysical audism refers to the idea of language being a distinguishing factor in what makes us human; however, with metaphysical audism, language becomes confused with speech, and in turn, speech becomes linked to being human.^[11]

Richard Eckert coined the term laissez-faire audism to indicate the modern state of acknowledging members the Deaf community's humanity, but denying their independence, for example through pediatric cochlear implantation.^[12]

Audiological ideologies have shaped curriculum within Deaf Education. Instruction in auditory language or auditory based systems, such as Signed Exact English, instead of instruction in signed languages, such as American Sign Language, has reinforced ideas of audism in Deaf schools. In addition, many educators and lawmakers contest teaching signed languages as a part of foreign language credit in school curriculum. This is due to misconceptions about ASL grammar structure, mistaking signed based language as a manual version of English. These claims also disregard the link between signed languages and their connection to Deaf culture, literature and performing arts. ^[13]In the 1970s, The influence of audism is also present in hire education of Deaf students. Gallaudet University hired a hearing president and implemented curriculum that was hearing centric, such as requiring students to take an audiology and pathology class to as well as take a hearing test to complete their graduate requirements. ^[14] In the "Deaf President Now" protest of 1988, Deaf students claiming their right to sign language within their educational system.

In America, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the Education for all Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA) created laws that mainstreamed deaf children, providing policies that valued speech and hearing over signed language. These acts provided education policies that reinforced integration of Deaf individuals into American, or hearing, society. Signed languages were generally replaced with Manually Coded English as a method of communication and Deaf/Hard of Hearing students were placed with hearing students in hopes that this would further speech development.^{[citation needed]}

Institutions such as the National Association of the Deaf (NAD) continue to work with U.S. Officials to improve these policies, claiming these educational practices were audist and create precedence of one language over another by implementing English as the primary language for instruction. ^[15]

Members of the medical field argue that the inability to hear is a medical problem in need of remedy. Devices such as the Cochlear Implant sparks controversy between medical practitioners and members of the Deaf community. A majority of medical practitioners are trained to see Deafness as something to be fixed. ^[16] This notion has its roots in the idea of normalcy and what constitutes disability. In many countries, "hearing" is considered the majority, deemed as "normal" while deaf falls outside of the majority and is deemed "abnormal.(cite) Statistics in favor of the cochlear implant measure language improvement through the acquisition of sound while excluding to mention signed languages. First accounts of hearing parents who are raising a deaf child tend to favor implanting their child, believing that the acquisition of sound will help their child better assimilate into hearing society. First accounts of Deaf parents, in contrast, tend to favor against surgery, believing that their primary language, sign language, is tied to their identity and culture. New research has shown that it is favorable for those who are hearing with a Deaf child to exercise all of their options, giving a child both access to spoken and signed languages.(cite)

Lack of communication access in trials of Deaf individuals has resulted in mistrials attributed to factors including interpreter and CART provider error and unqualified interpretation, all contributing to an overall lack of understanding or misunderstanding by the judge and members of the jury. These factors have also led to unlawful sentences in some criminal cases. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requires Deaf individuals be given equal access in the courtroom through a qualified interpreter. The law establishes stricter guidelines for interpreting licensure, aiming to reduce the amount of errors in the courtroom.^[17]

Conversely, a deaf man convicted of rape in Norway successfully appealed for a shorter sentence by arguing his deafness constituted a mitigating circumstance, reducing his degree of culpability for the crime. The court's decision angered the Norwegian Deaf community, which perceived the rationale behind the reduced sentence as patronizing, ignoring the capacity of deaf individuals to reason and thus to be held fully accountable and to receive the same sentences as other, hearing, Norwegian citizens.^[18]

Domestic crime among Deaf individuals tends to have a lower investigation rate than domestic crime between hearing individuals. A recent study shows that Deaf women have a higher rate of abuse than hearing women although the disparity has attracted little attention for further research.^[19]

Among deaf individuals incarcerated in Texas in 2004, 20% were judged "linguistically incompetent," unable to either understand the charges they faced or to meaningfully participate in the creation of their defense, while another 30% were "adjudicatively incompetent, unable to understand the legal proceedings without targeted instructional intervention. These statuses were the results of either lack of fluency in any language or functional illiteracy, respectively. As a result, it is unlikely that these deaf inmates had received their constitutional right to due process of law. However, all deaf inmates studied had nevertheless been convicted and incarcerated, possible violations of their constitutional rights. Notably, deaf individuals who were either ASL-dominant bilinguals equally comfortable in both ASL and English were the least likely to fall into either category and therefore the most likely to have received due process.^[20]

Interpreter errors

Cases that highlight audism

Audism can be closely linked to the term linguicism, or ideologies that pertain to the way in which an institution is facilitated and regulated in favor of a dominant culture through the basis of language. Linguicism highlights spoken language to be apart of the dominant culture and signed languages to be of the minority culture, expanding that those who use spoken language are provided with more accessible economic, social and political resources which give them an advantage over those who use signed languages. ^[21]

Audism is linked to phonocentric values in defining linguistics. Linguistic terminology has been determined by sound based methodologies, for instance the concept of linearity in spoken languages fails to recognize the grammatical structures of visual-manual-kinesthetic based languages. Additionally, early twentieth century linguists determined those without sound based languages did not possess any capacity for language while others romanticized sign languages or believed them to be primitive. However, additional linguists argue this claim minimizes the advances in Deaf Studies and the recognition of signed languages as a part of the linguistic lexicon. ^[22]

For centuries, there has been controversy over whether linguistic theory pertains to signed languages. It was not until William Stokoe contested this argument and found structural evidence that linked ASL to linguistic rules that ASL was finally recognized as a language. These claims, however, are still contested by lawmakers and educators due to the inability to recognize the rules of visual-modal languages and misconceptions of their origins outside of sound-based languages.^[23]

Alexander Graham Bell - inventor of the telephone. An avid supporter of eugenics, He published the essay Memoir Upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race which condemned intermarriage between Deaf individuals. He championed the oralist movement, his associated endeavors including pushing for the removal of sign language from Deaf schools to be replaced with his own alphabet called "Visible Speech," and striving to cure deafness. ^[24]

Horace Mann Founded the first school for the Deaf in Connecticut but whose policies educational reform that pushed the oralist methods, such as a focus on lipreading and articulation in the education of deaf children.^[25]

Garrick Mallery- studied Indian culture and sign language for the Bureau of Ethnology in the Smithsonian Institute. Although he recognized the validity of modal languages, he argued that signed languages were inferior to oral languages on the basis that they could not be written down. ^[26]

Audism and Deaf Education Stremlau, Tonya M. “Language Policy, Culture, and Disability: ASL and English.” Rhetoric Review, vol. 22, no. 2, 2003, pp. 184–190. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/309303

Eckert,Richard Clark. Rowley, Amy June"Audism: A Theory and Practice of Audiocentric Privilege" Humanity & Society Vol 37, Issue 2, pp. 101 - 130 April 18, 2013, https://doi.org/10.1177/0160597613481731.

Murray E. G. Smith, and Pamela Campbell. “Discourses on Deafness: Social Policy and the Communicative Habilitation of the Deaf.” The Canadian Journal of Sociology / Cahiers Canadiens De Sociologie, vol. 22, no. 4, 1997, pp. 437–456. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3341692.

Fernandes, Jane K., and Shirley Shultz Myers. “Inclusive Deaf Studies: Barriers and Pathways.” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, vol. 15, no. 1, 2010, pp. 17–29. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43666251.

Barth, M., & Soto, C.M.3. The Psychological World of Deaf People. Ephphatha! The Deaf Person in the Life of the Church, 17

Wilson, J. A., & Atcherson, S. R. (2017). Audism and Its Implications for Audiology. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 2(8).

Stapleton, L. D. (2016). Audism and Racism: The Hidden Curriculum Impacting Black d/Deaf College Students in the Classroom. Negro Educational Review, 67(1-4), 149.

Bhattacharya, T. (2011). Deaf education and identity in the face of prevailing audism. Panel discussion on disabilty and cinema, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi.

Audism in Linguistics

Myers, Shirley Shultz, and Jane K. Fernandes. “Deaf Studies: A Critique of the Predominant U.S. Theoretical Direction.” Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, vol. 15, no. 1, 2010, pp. 30–49. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43666252.

Rosen, Russell S. “American Sign Language as a Foreign Language in U.S. High Schools: State of the Art.” The Modern Language Journal, vol. 92, no. 1, 2008, pp. 10–38. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/25172990

History of Audism

Bayton, Douglass C."Forbidden Signs: American Culture and the Campaign Against Sign Language" University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London,1996. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=CURQquUqiGwC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=argument+against+sign+language+linguistics&ots=nzWAnQTyKN&sig=IM8WxfptJbwyyw00_xpRt5IG2OQ#v=onepage&q=sign%20language%20inferior&f=false

Bauman, H-Dirksen L. "Open Your Eyes: Deaf Studies Talking" University of Minnesota Press, 2008.https://books.google.com/books?id=Ah32ktcvB28C&pg=PA14&dq=audism+and+oral+movement&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi51a-zgsXZAhUlzlkKHdW2DOQQ6AEIJzAA#v=onepage&q=audism%20and%20oral%20movement&f=false