nan for Southern Min / Min Nan (hbl for HokkienBân-lâm is proposed[4]) which encompasses a variety of Hokkien dialects including "Lannang" / "Lán-lâng-ōe" / "咱人話" / "Philippine Hokkien".[5]
The endonym used by speakers of the dialect itself or the Hokkien language in general though is typically, Chinese: 咱人話 / 咱儂話; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Lán-nâng-ōe / Lán-lâng-ōe / Nán-nâng-ōe; Tâi-lô: Lán-nâng-uē / Lán-lâng-uē / Nán-nâng-uē.[6]
Sociolinguistics
Only 12.2% of all ethnic Chinese in the Philippines have a variety of Chinese as their mother tongue. Nevertheless, the vast majority (77%) still retain the ability to understand and speak Hokkien as a second or third language.[28]
History
From the late 16th century to the early 17th century, Spanish friars in the Philippines, such as the Dominican Order and Jesuits specifically in Manila, produced materials documenting the Hokkien varieties spoken by the Chinese trading community who had settled there in the late 16th century:[30][16]
As a result as well of a 1603 Sangley Rebellion and a 1639 2nd Sangley Rebellion which both caused massacres of ethnic SangleyChinese in Manila or Southern Luzon in general, the loss of Spanish Formosa to the Dutch in 1642, and the victory of Koxinga (國姓爺; Kok-sèng-iâ) in 1662 against the Dutch at the Siege of Fort Zeelandia in Taiwan, which caused the founding of the Kingdom of Tungning, Koxinga would send an ultimatum to Spanish Manila demanding to pay tribute to him or else he would send a fleet to conquer them and expel the Spaniards as well. The Spanish took the threat very seriously and withdrew their forces from the Moluccas, Sulu, and Mindanao to strengthen Manila in preparation for an attack. There would be several raids across Northern Luzon by Koxinga's forces. In the same year of 1662, Koxinga would suddenly die of malaria, only a few months after defeating the Dutch, in a fit of madness and delirium after discovering that his son and heir, Zheng Jing, had an affair with his wet nurse and conceived a child with her. A 1662 Sangley Massacre would ensue due to these mounting events and many SangleyChinese fled by ship or to the mountains. Likewise during the 1700s, Spanish Dominican friar missionaries in Amoy/Xiamen would be severely persecuted in the region as well, but nevertheless continued to operate clandestinely.[12]
— Conrad Malte-Brun, as quoted by Walter Henry Medhurst, A Dictionary of the Hok-këèn Dialect of the Chinese Language, According to the Reading and Colloquial Idioms: Containing About 12,000 Characters, A Short Historical and Statistical Account of the Province of Hok-këèn. (Compiled from European and Chinese Authors.)
The Spanish trade with Amoy to and from Manila later grew nominal as a result of the above destabilizing conflicts cutting the empire in half. The Hokkien Chinese merchants from Amoy and Chinchew to and from Manila would later outcompete the Spaniards by the mid-1800s, as noted by the British, such as James Matheson, co-founder of Jardine Matheson:[35]
Amoy, a much more substantial port giving access to the tea-growing province of Fukien, was open to Spanish trade only. But the right was merely nominal because Chinese junks could transport goods to and from the Philippines much more cheaply than could the Spaniards. The latter had practically given up the trade; only one Spanish ship put in at Amoy between 1810 and 1830. ...Another witness said the Spaniards had given up the Amoy trade since 1800.
— Michael Greenberg, British Trade and the Opening of China, 1800-1842, Chapter III: The Canton Commercial System, p.47
— Carstairs Douglas, Chinese–English Dictionary of the Vernacular or Spoken Language of Amoy, Extent of the Amoy Vernacular, and its Sub-division into Dialects: Colonization And Emigration
By 1883, Rev. John Macgowan also records 3 entries explicitly defining HokkienChinese: 呂宋; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Lū-sòng; lit. 'Luzon' in his Hokkien dictionary:
Luzon, 呂宋 Lū-sòng,—belongs to Spain, 呂宋是大°呂宋之°屬國 Lū-sòng sī Tōa lū-sòng ê siók kok
— John Macgowan, English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect, L[37]
Manilla [sic], 呂宋 Lū-sòng, very many Chinese go to—, 唐°人°去°呂宋盡多° tn̂g lâng khì Lū-sòng tsīn tsōe.
— John Macgowan, English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect, M[38]
Philippines, 呂宋 Lū-sòng.
— John Macgowan, English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect, P[39]
The Chinese community of the Philippines during the Spanish colonial era used to also speak a sort of Spanish pidgin variety known as "CalóChinoEspañol" or "La Lengua del Parian"[40] in Spanish or "Kastilangtindahan" in Tagalog, especially because the Chinese community before obligates Chinese cabecillas (community leaders), such as Capitan Carlos Palanca Tan Quien Sien, to teach rudimentary Spanish to new Chinese immigrants which was taught in Chinese-owned schools. They could speak these Spanish pidgin varieties after one month which many, especially old timers later became very fluent, albeit some still with accented Spanish. Spanish was prevalent enough among the educated in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial era, that Joseph Earle Stevens, an American that stayed in Manila from 1893-1894 had this to say in his book, "Yesterdays in the Philippines":[41][42]
Spanish, of course, is the court and commercial language and, except among uneducated natives who have a lingo of their own or among the few members of the Anglo-Saxon colony, it has a monopoly everywhere. No one can really get on without it, and even the Chinese come in with their peculiar pidgin variety
— Joseph Earle Stevens, Yesterdays in the Philippines
By 1987, under the current 1987 constitution of the Philippines, Spanish began to only be "promoted on a voluntary and optional basis", leading to most schools in the Philippines to no longer teach Spanish as a required class subject, which would most if not completely dissipate from mainstream use in later decades in the Philippines. The Spanish used decades before have been retained as a few Spanish loanwords in Philippine Hokkien, such as those found below.
From the 20th to the 21st century, there have been a few books published about Hokkien from the Philippines based on what is used at least by the author in the Philippines and many of whom have been utilizing the Latin script often together with Chinese characters to try and write Hokkien based on the author's level of literacy on written Hokkien. Sometimes the Chinese characters used in these 20th to 21st century books only use Chinese characters more appropriate to MandarinStandard Chinese, so it is mostly the RomanizedLatin script section that can be properly identified as Philippine Hokkien, although due to different author's level of literacy on written Hokkien, the orthographies of the romanization used may widely differ per author usually influenced by the author's knowledge of English orthography, Filipino orthography, MandarinPinyin or Wade-Giles, and Spanish orthography (for older works). These 20th-21st century publications from the Philippines about Hokkien often also call the Hokkien language with different names, such as "Chinese",[18][25][24][23][26]"Amoy",[18][27]"Fookien",[24][23]"Fukien",[8]"Fukienese",[25] or even "Fujianwa"[26] or "Foojian".[26] There have been books as well in the Philippines writing in Pe̍h-ōe-jī (POJ) for Hokkien in the Philippines, such as Victoria W. Peralta-Ang Gobonseng's "Amoy Vernacular Handbook" Vol. 1 Revised Edition (2003).[27]
Chinese Buddhist temples in the Philippines also primarily conduct their sutra chanting services and temple sermons in Hokkien via the venerable monks and nuns living in the temples across the Philippines. Many of the Chinese Buddhist monastics only speak Hokkien or Mandarin (if recently came from China), though some can also speak English, and rarely also Filipino (Tagalog). Some of the Chinese Buddhist temples are associated as well with the Tzu Chi Foundation from Taiwan. Most Chinese Buddhist temples in the Philippines are rooted in the ChineseMahāyāna tradition with some syncretizing Taoism, while also practicing Confucian principles. For example, Guandi or known in Hokkien as 帝爺公; Tè-iâ-kong or 關公; Koan-kong or 關帝爺; Koan-tè-iâ, the Chinese God of War, is usually a door god or a statue by the doors and entrances of Chinese Buddhist temples to serve as a symbolic protector. Some Chinese Buddhist temples also run Chinese Filipino schools in the Philippines, such as the Samantabhadra Institute, Philippine Academy of Sakya, and Philippine Buddhacare Academy.[21]
Roman Catholic Christianity in the Philippines used to also have Hokkien as one of the languages they used to conduct their liturgy in but its current use for ministry is now defunct, especially under the Chinese-Filipino Catholic Apostolate of the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP). It has a long history in using Hokkien to minister to SangleyChinese living in the Philippines and Fujian as evidenced in the works of the Spanish friars, such as the Doctrina Christiana en letra y lingua china (1593), who aimed to use the Sangley Chinese Catholic converts as a catalyst for converting the rest of China.[17][11]
21st century Philippine Hokkien (咱人話; Lán-nâng-ōe) is largely derived from the Coastal Quanzhou (泉州; Choân-chiu) Hokkien dialects of Jinjiang (晉江; Chìn-kang), Coastal Nan'an (海南安 / 下南安; Hái Lâm-oaⁿ / Ě Lâm-oaⁿ), Shishi (石狮; Chio̍h-sai), Quanzhou City Proper (泉州市; Choân-chiu), Hui’an (惠安; Hūi-oaⁿ), but has possibly also absorbed influences from the adjacent Amoy dialects of Xiamen (廈門; Ē-mn̂g), Coastal Tong’an (同安; Tâng-oaⁿ), Kinmen (金門; Kim-mn̂g), Highland Nan'an (頂南安 / 山南安; Téng Lâm-oaⁿ / Soaⁿ Lâm-oaⁿ), Inland Yongchun (永春; Éng-chhun), and Inland Anxi (安溪; An-khoe) dialects of Xiamen and Highland Quanzhou respectively.[46][47][48][49]
Meanwhile, the older late 16th to 17th century Early Manila Hokkien once spoken around the Manila Bay area was largely derived from Coastal Zhangzhou (漳州; Chiang-chiu) Hokkien dialects of Haicheng (海澄; Hái-têng)[17] and Longxi (龍溪; Liông-khe), with also some features from the Coastal Quanzhou (泉州; Choân-chiu) Hokkien dialects of Anhai (安海; Oaⁿ-hái)[17] and Tong'an (同安; Tâng-oaⁿ).[17] Haicheng and Longxi have since been merged by 1960 within modern-day Longhai (龍海; Liông-hái) of Coastal Zhangzhou (漳州; Chiang-chiu) on the mouth of the Jiulong River (九龍江; Kiú-liông-kang) from where the old smuggling port of Yuegang (月港; Goe̍h-káng) used to operate from, before being overshadowed by the Port of Xiamen (廈門港; Ē-mn̂g Káng) closer to the sea by around the mid-1600s at the Ming-Qing transition due to conflict between the Ming loyalist, Koxinga (國姓爺; Kok-sèng-iâ), and the Qing forces.
桶/tʰaŋ˥˥˦/, short for 面桶/bin˧tʰaŋ˥˥˦/: "million". in other Hokkien varieties, 百萬/paʔ˥ban˥˩/ is used instead
instead of just 翕像/hip̚˨˦ɕiɔŋ˨/, there is also 欱像/hap̚˨˦ɕiɔŋ˧/: "to photograph"
instead of just 有時陣/u˨ɕi˨t͡sun˥˩/. there is also 有陣時/u˨t͡sun˨ɕi˨˦/ and, 有陣仔/u˨t͡sun˨a˥˥˦/: "sometimes"
熱人/luaʔ˨laŋ˨˦/: "hot" (of the weather). in other Hokkien varieties, it means "summer"
寒人/kuã˨laŋ˨˦/: "cold" (of the weather). in other Hokkien varieties, it means "winter"
Philippine Hokkien usually follows the 3 decimal place Hindu-Arabic numeral system used worldwide, but still retains the concept of 萬; bān; 'ten thousand' from the Chinese numeral system, so 'ten thousand' would be 一萬; chi̍t-bān, but examples of the 3 decimal place logic have produced words like:
'eleven thousand' – 十一千; cha̍p-it-chheng, and same idea for succeeding numbers
Other Hokkien variants: 一萬一千; chi̍t-bān chi̍t-chheng
'one hundred thousand' – 一百千; chi̍t-pah-chheng, and same idea for succeeding numbers
Other Hokkien variants: 十萬; cha̍p-bān
'one million' – 一桶; chi̍t-tháng or 一面桶; chi̍t-bīn-tháng, and same idea for succeeding numbers
Other Hokkien variants: 一百萬; chi̍t-pah-bān
'one hundred million' – 一百桶; chi̍t-pah-tháng, and same idea for succeeding numbers
Both ways of speaking are very common among Chinese Filipinos, who tend to code-switch these languages in everyday conversation, where it can be observed that older generations typically use the Hokkien Chinese sentence structure base while injecting English and Tagalog words while the younger ones use the Filipino/Tagalog sentence structure as the base while injecting the few Hokkien terms they know in the sentence. The latter therefore, in a similar sense with Taglish using Tagalog grammar and syntax, tends to code-mix via conjugating the Hokkien terms the way they do for Filipino/Tagalog words.[50]
^also known as Lannang-Oe (Chinese: 咱人話 / 咱儂話; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Lán-nâng-ōe / Lán-lâng-ōe / Nán-nâng-ōe; lit. 'Our People's Speech'),[6][7]Fukien,[8] and Fookien[6]
^pronounced before in Early Modern Spanish as IPA: /ʃaˈbon/ during the early centuries of Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines
References
^Mei, Tsu-lin (1970), "Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 30: 86–110, doi:10.2307/2718766, JSTOR2718766
^ abcUayan, Dr. Jean Uy (Professor on Chinese Filipino Church History) (July 15, 2014). "The "Amoy Mission": Lessons and Reflections". BSOP Biblical Seminary of the Philippines. Archived from the original on June 1, 2023. Retrieved April 13, 2024.
^ abcdWangli, John (2002). Speak Chinese-Filipino-English 菲英中口语速成: The fastest and easiest way. World Link Books. ISBN971-92004-1-3.
^ abcdefYoung, Johnny C. (1994). Keeping Up With Your Chinese Filipino 中菲英語言會話大全書 Sanayan Aklat sa Pagsasalita ng Intsik Ingles. Vol. 1. San Juan, Metro Manila: Pharoah Enterprises. ISBN9719-026-11-1.
^Yue, Anne O. (1999). "The Min Translation of the Doctrina Christiana". Contemporary Studies on the Min Dialects. Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series 14. Chinese University Press. pp. 42–76. JSTOR23833463.
^Macgowan, John (1883). "Luzon". English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect (in English & Amoy Hokkien). Amoy & London: A. A. Marcal and Trubner & Co. 57 Ludgate Hill. p. 287.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
^Macgowan, John (1883). "Manilla". English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect (in English & Amoy Hokkien). Amoy & London: A. A. Marcal and Trubner & Co. 57 Ludgate Hill. p. 293.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
^Macgowan, John (1883). "Philippines". English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect (in English & Amoy Hokkien). Amoy & London: A. A. Marcal and Trubner & Co. 57 Ludgate Hill. p. 379.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
Arte de la Lengua Chio-chiu (in Minnan and Spanish). Manila. 1620 – via Biblioteca Patrimonial Digital de la Universitat de Barcelona. – A manual for learning Hokkien written by a Spanish missionary in the Philippines.
External links
"Amoy Resources". BSOP Biblical Seminary of the Philippines. Retrieved April 13, 2024.