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Vietnamese Kinh people account for 85.32% of the population of Vietnam in the 2019 census, and are officially designated and recognized as the Kinh people (người Kinh) to distinguish them from the other minority groups residing in the country such as the Hmong, Cham, or Mường. The Vietnamese are one of the four main groups of Vietic speakers in Vietnam, the others being the Mường, Thổ, and Chứt people. They are related to the Gin people, a minority ethnic group in China.
Terminology
According to Churchman (2010), all endonyms and exonyms referring to the Vietnamese such as Viet (related to ancient Chinese geographical imagination), Kinh (related to medieval administrative designation), or Keeu and Kæw (derived from Jiāo 交, ancient Chinese toponym for Northern Vietnam, Old Chinese*kraw) by Kra-Dai speaking peoples, are related to political structures or have common origins in ancient Chinese geographical imagination. Most of the time, the Austroasiatic-speaking ancestors of the modern Kinh under one single ruler might have assumed for themselves a similar or identical social self-designation inherent in the modern Vietnamese first-person pronoun ta (us, we, I) to differentiate themselves with other groups. In the older colloquial usage, ta corresponded to "ours" as opposed to "theirs", and during colonial time they were "nước ta" (our country) and "tiếng ta" (our language) in contrast to "nước tây" (western countries) and "tiếng tây" (western languages).[68]
Việt
The term "Việt" (Yue) (Chinese: 越; pinyin: Yuè; Cantonese Yale: Yuht; Wade–Giles: Yüeh4; Vietnamese: Việt) in Early Middle Chinese was first written using the logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越".[69] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.[70][71] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yangyue, a term later used for peoples further south.[70] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC Yue/Việt referred to the State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.[69][70] From the 3rd century BC the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called Minyue, Ouyue (Vietnamese: Âu Việt), Luoyue (Vietnamese: Lạc Việt), etc., collectively called the Baiyue (Bách Việt, Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎiyuè; Cantonese Yale: Baak Yuet; Vietnamese: Bách Việt; lit. 'Hundred Yue/Viet'; ).[69][70] The term Baiyue/Bách Việt first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC.[72][73] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese referred to themselves as người Việt 𠊛越 (Viet people) or người Nam 𠊛南 (southern people).[74]
Người Việt 𠊛越 (Vietnamese people) written here in the book, 大南國史演歌 Đại Nam quốc sử diễn ca
Kinh
Beginning in the 10th and 11th centuries, a strand of Viet-Muong (northern Vietic language) with influence from a hypothetic Chinese dialect in northern Vietnam, dubbed as Annamese Middle Chinese, started to become what is now the Vietnamese language.[75][76][77] Its speakers called themselves the "Kinh" people, meaning people of the "metropolitan" centered around the Red River Delta with Hanoi as its capital. Historic and modern chữ Nôm scripture classically uses the Han character '京', pronounced "Jīng" in Mandarin, and "Kinh" with Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation. Other variants of Proto-Viet-Muong were driven from the lowlands by the Kinh and were called Trại (寨 Mandarin: Zhài), or "outpost" people," by the 13th century. These became the modern Mường people.[78] According to Victor Lieberman, người Kinh (Chữ Nôm: 𠊛京) may be a colonial-era term for Vietnamese speakers inserted anachronistically into translations of pre-colonial documents, but literature on 18th century ethnic formation is lacking.[74]
History
Origins and pre-history
There is considerable debate regarding the ethnic origin of the Kinh people. The Vietic languages are traditionally assumed to originate from northern Vietnam, around the Red River Delta.[79][80][81] Archaeogenetics demonstrate that the Hoabinbians, who share common ancestry with Aboriginal Australians and Melanesians, were the earliest human settlers of northern Vietnam. They later mixed with East Asian immigrants, as demonstrated by the human remains from the Đông Sơn and Mán Bạc cultures.[82] A 2018 study, however, stated that the immigrants show closer affinities with the Kinh Vietnamese, along with the Hmong, Dai from China and Thai from Thailand.[83]
One hypothesis suggests that the forerunners of the ethnic Kinh descend from a subset of proto-Austroasiatic people in southern China, either around Yunnan, Lingnan, or the Yangtze River, as well as mainland Southeast Asia. These proto-Austroasiatics also diverged into Monic speakers, who settled further to the west, and the Khmeric speakers, who migrated further south. The Munda of northeastern India were another subset of proto-Austroasiatics who likely diverged earlier than the aforementioned groups, given the linguistic distance in basic vocabulary of the languages. Most archaeologists, linguists, and other specialists, such as Sinologists and crop experts, believe that they arrived no later than 2000 BC, bringing with them the practice of riverine agriculture and in particular, the cultivation of wet rice.[84][85][86][87] Some linguists (James Chamberlain, Joachim Schliesinger) have suggested that Vietic-speaking people migrated from the North Central Region of Vietnam to the Red River Delta, which had originally been inhabited by Taispeakers.[88][89][90][91] However, Michael Churchman found no records of population shifts in Jiaozhi (centered around the Red River Delta) in Chinese sources, indicating that a fairly stable population of Austroasiatic speakers, ancestral to modern Vietnamese, inhabited the delta during the Han-Tang periods.[92] Others[who?] have proposed that tribes in northern Vietnam and southern China did not have any kind of defined ethnic boundary and could not be described as "Vietnamese" (Kinh) in any satisfactory sense.[93] Thus, attempts to identify ethnic groups in ancient Vietnam are problematic and often inaccurate.[94]
Another theory, based upon linguistic diversity, locates the most probable homeland of the Vietic languages in modern-day Bolikhamsai Province and Khammouane Province in Laos as well as in parts of Nghệ An Province and Quảng Bình Province in Vietnam. In the 1930s, clusters of Vietic-speaking communities discovered in the hills of eastern Laos were believed to be the earliest inhabitants of that region.[95]
According to the Vietnamese legend The Tale of the Hồng Bàng Clan (Hồng Bàng thị truyện), written in the 15th century, the first Vietnamese were descended from the dragon lord Lạc Long Quân and the fairyÂu Cơ. They married and had one hundred eggs, from which hatched one hundred children. Their eldest son ruled as the Hùng king.[96] The Hùng kings were claimed to be descended from the mythical figure Shen Nong.[97]
Early history and Chinese rule
The earliest reference of the proto-Vietnamese in Chinese annals was the Lạc (Chinese: Luo), Lạc Việt, or the Dongsonian,[98] an ancient tribal confederacy of perhaps polyglot Austroasiatic and Kra-Dai speakers who occupied the Red River Delta.[99][100] The Lạc developed the metallurgical Đông Sơn culture and the Văn Langchiefdom, ruled by the semi-mythical Hùng kings.[101] To the south of the Dongsonians was the Sa Huỳnh culture of the AustronesianChamic people.[102] Around 400–200 BC, the Lạc came to contact with the Âu Việt (a splinter group of Tai people) and the Sinitic people from the north.[103] According to a late-third- or early-fourth-century AD Chinese chronicle, the leader of the Âu Việt, Thục Phán, conquered Văn Lang and deposed the last Hùng king.[104] Having submissions of Lạc lords, Thục Phán proclaimed himself King An Dương of Âu Lạc kingdom.[101]
In 179 BC, Zhao Tuo, a Chinese general who has established the Nanyue state in modern-day Southern China, annexed Âu Lạc, and began the Sino-Vietic interaction that lasted in a millennium.[105] In 111 BC, the Han Empire conquered Nanyue, brought the Northern Vietnam region under Han rule.[106]
By the 7th century to 9th century AD, as the Tang Empire ruled over the region, historians such as Henri Maspero proposed that Vietnamese-speaking people became separated from other Vietic groups such as the Mường and Chứt due to heavier Chinese influences on the Vietnamese.[107] Other argue that a Vietic migration from north central Vietnam to the Red River Delta in the seventh century replaced the original Tai-speaking inhabitants.[108] In the mid-9th century, local rebels aided by Nanzhao tore the Tang Chinese rule to nearly collapse.[109] The Tang reconquered the region in 866, causing half of the local rebels to flee into the mountains, marking the separation between the Mường and the Vietnamese.[107][110] In 938, the Vietnamese leader Ngô Quyền who was a native of Thanh Hóa, led Viet forces to defeat the Chinese Southern Han armada at Bạch Đằng River. He proclaimed himself king over a polity that could be perceived as "Vietnamese".[111]
Medieval and early modern period
One of the traditional costumes of Vietnamese people
Ngô Quyền died in 944 and his kingdom collapsed into chaos and disturbances between twelve warlords and chiefs.[112] In 968, a leader named Đinh Bộ Lĩnh united them and established the Đại Việt (Great Việt) kingdom.[113] With assistance of powerful Buddhist monks, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh chose Hoa Lư in the southern edge of the Red River Delta as the capital instead of Tang-era Đại La, adopted Chinese-style imperial titles, coinage, and ceremonies and tried to preserve the Chinese administrative framework.[114] The independence of Đại Việt, according to Andrew Chittick, allows it "to develop its own distinctive political culture and ethnic consciousness."[115] In 979, Emperor Đinh Tiên Hoàng was assassinated, and Queen Dương Vân Nga married with Dinh's general Lê Hoàn, appointed him as Emperor. Disturbances in Đại Việt attracted attention from the neighbouring Chinese Song dynasty and Champa Kingdom, but they were defeated by Lê Hoàn.[116] A Khmer inscription dated 987 records the arrival of Vietnamese merchants (Yuon) in Angkor.[117] Chinese writers Song Hao, Fan Chengda and Zhou Qufei all reported that the inhabitants of Đại Việt "tattooed their foreheads, crossed feet, black teeth, bare feet and blacken clothing."[118] The early 11th-century Cham inscription of Chiên Đàn, My Son, erected by king of Champa Harivarman IV (r. 1074–1080), mentions that he had offered Khmer (Kmīra/Kmir) and Viet (Yvan) prisoners as slaves to various local gods and temples of the citadel of Tralauṅ Svon.[119]
Successive Vietnamese royal families from the Đinh, Early Lê, Lý dynasties and (Hoa)/Chinese ancestry Trần and Hồ dynasties ruled the kingdom peacefully from 968 to 1407. Emperor Lý Thái Tổ (r. 1009–1028) relocated the Vietnamese capital from Hoa Lư to Đại La, the center of the Red River Delta in 1010.[120] They practiced elitist marriage alliances between clans and nobles in the country. Mahayana Buddhism became state religion, Vietnamese music instruments, dancing and religious worshipping were influenced by both Cham, Indian and Chinese styles,[121] while Confucianism slowly gained attention and influence.[122] The earliest surviving corpus and text in the Vietnamese language dated early 12th century, and surviving chữ Nôm script inscriptions dated early 13th century, showcasing enormous influences of Chinese culture among the early Vietnamese elites.[123]
The Mongol Yuan dynasty unsuccessfully invaded Đại Việt in the 1250s and 1280s, though they sacked Hanoi.[124] The Ming dynasty of China conquered Đại Việt in 1406, brought the Vietnamese under Chinese rule for 20 years, before they were driven out by Vietnamese leader Lê Lợi.[125] The fourth grandson of Lê Lợi, Emperor Lê Thánh Tông (r. 1460–1497), is considered one of the greatest monarchs in Vietnamese history. His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, education, and fiscal reforms he instituted, and a cultural revolution that replaced the old traditional aristocracy with a generation of literati scholars, adopted Confucianism, and transformed a Đại Việt from a Southeast Asian style polity to a bureaucratic state, and flourished. Thánh Tông's forces, armed with gunpowder weapons, overwhelmed the long-term rival Champa in 1471, then launched an unsuccessful invasion against the Laotian and Lan Na kingdoms in the 1480s.[126]
16th century – Modern period
Vietnamese soldiers in 1828Vietnamese bureaucrat officials, 1883–1886Vietnamese farmers in 1921
With the death of Thánh Tông in 1497, the Đại Việt kingdom swiftly declined. Climate extremes, failing crops, regionalism and factionism tore the Vietnamese apart.[127] From 1533 to 1790s, four powerful Vietnamese families – Mạc, Lê, Trịnh and Nguyễn – each ruled on their own domains. In northern Vietnam (Đàng Ngoài–outer realm), the Lê emperors barely sat on the throne while the Trịnh lords held power of the court. The Mạc controlled northeast Vietnam. The Nguyễn lords ruled the southern polity of Đàng Trong (inner realm).[128] Thousands of ethnic Vietnamese migrated south, settled on the old Cham lands.[129] European missionaries and traders from the sixteenth century brought new religion, ideas and crops to the Vietnamese (Annamese). By 1639, there were 82,500 Catholic converts throughout Vietnam. In 1651, Alexandre de Rhodes published a 300-pages catechism in Latin and romanized-Vietnamese (chữ Quốc Ngữ) or the Vietnamese alphabet.[130]
The Vietnamese Fragmentation period ended in 1802 as Emperor Gia Long, who was aided by French mercenaries defeated the Tay Son kingdoms and reunited Vietnam. Through assimilation and brutal subjugation in the 1830s by Minh Mang, a large chunk of indigenous Cham had been assimilated into Vietnamese. By 1847, the Vietnamese state under Emperor Thiệu Trị, people that identified them as "người Việt Nam" accounted for nearly 80 percent of the country's population.[131] This demographic model continues to persist through the French Indochina, Japanese occupation and modern day.
Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became the French colony of Cochinchina.[132] By 1884, the entire country had come under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. The three Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union of French Indochina in 1887.[133][134] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.[135] A Western-style system of modern education introduced new humanist values into Vietnam.[136]
Vietnamese soldiers in 1972
Despite having a long recorded history of the Vietnamese language and people, the identification and distinction of 'ethnic Vietnamese' or ethnic Kinh, as well as other ethnic groups in Vietnam, were only begun by colonial administration in the late 19th and early 20th century. Following colonial government's efforts of ethnic classificating, nationalism, especially ethnonationalism and eugenic social Darwinism were encouraged among the new Vietnamese intelligentsia's discourse. Ethnic tensions sparked by Vietnamese ethnonationalism peaked during the late 1940s at the beginning phase of the First Indochina War (1946–1954), which resulted in violence between Khmer and Vietnamese in the Mekong Delta.
The mid-20th century marked a pivotal turning point with the Vietnam War, a conflict that not only left an indelible impact on the nation but also had far-reaching consequences for the Vietnamese people. The war, which lasted from 1955 to 1975, resulted in significant social, economic, and political upheavals, shaping the modern history of Vietnam and its people. Following the end of the Vietnam War in 1975, the post-war era brought economic hardships and strained social dynamics, prompting resilient efforts at reconstruction, reconciliation, and the implementation of economic reforms such as the Đổi Mới policies in the late 20th century. Later, North Vietnam's Soviet-style social integrational and ethnic classification tried to build an image of diversity under the harmony of socialism, promoting the idea of the Vietnamese nation as a 'great single family' comprised by many different ethnic groups, and Vietnamese ethnic chauvinism was officially discouraged.
Genetics
Several studies show a close genetic connection between Kinh Vietnamese and Thais[137][138][139][140] although one 2017 study suggests they have dual origins from southern Han Chinese and Thai-Indonesians.[141] A 2022 study states that the Kinh possessed genetic characteristics of the Baiyue lineage, similar to other Tai-Kadai-speaking Baiyue populations in mainland China.[142]
It is worth noting here that the data is highly skewed, as a large majority of Vietnamese may declare themselves atheist, yet practice forms of traditional folk religion or Mahayana Buddhism.[143]
Estimates for the year 2010 published by the Pew–Templeton Global Religious Futures Project:[144][unreliable source?]
Map of the countries with a significant Vietnamese populationVietnamese New Year parade, San Jose, California, United States
Originally from northern Vietnam and southern China, the Vietnamese have expanded south and conquered much of the land belonging to the former Champa Kingdom and Khmer Empire over the centuries. They are the dominant ethnic group in most provinces of Vietnam, and constitute a small percentage of the population in neighbouring Cambodia.
Beginning around the sixteenth century, groups of Vietnamese migrated to Cambodia and China for commerce and political purposes. Descendants of Vietnamese migrants in China form the Gin ethnic group in the country and primarily reside in and around Guangxi Province. Vietnamese form the largest ethnic minority group in Cambodia, at 5% of the population.[145] Under the Khmer Rouge, they were heavily persecuted and survivors of the regime largely fled to Vietnam.
During French colonialism, Vietnam was regarded as the most important colony in Asia by the French colonial powers, and the Vietnamese had a higher social standing than other ethnic groups in French Indochina.[146] As a result, educated Vietnamese were often trained to be placed in colonial government positions in the other Asian French colonies of Laos and Cambodia rather than locals of the respective colonies. There was also a significant representation of Vietnamese students in France during this period, primarily consisting of members of the elite class. A large number of Vietnamese also migrated to France as workers, especially during World War I and World War II, when France recruited soldiers and locals of its colonies to help with war efforts in metropolitan France. The wave of migrants to France during World War I formed the first major presence of the Vietnamese in France and the Western world.[147]
Congregation of the Mother Coredemptrix in Carthage, Missouri
When Vietnam gained its independence from France in 1954, a number of Vietnamese loyal to the colonial government also migrated to France. During the partition of Vietnam into North and South, a number of South Vietnamese students also arrived to study in France, along with individuals involved in commerce for trade with France, which was a principal economic partner with South Vietnam.[147]
Ethnolinguistic groups of Mainland Southeast Asia
Forced repatriation in 1970 and deaths during the Khmer Rouge era reduced the Vietnamese population in Cambodia from between 250,000 and 300,000 in 1969 to a reported 56,000 in 1984.[148]
The fall of Saigon and end of the Vietnam War prompted the start of the Vietnamese diaspora, which saw millions of Vietnamese fleeing the country from the new communist regime. Recognizing an international humanitarian crisis, many countries accepted Vietnamese refugees, primarily the United States, France, Australia and Canada.[149] Meanwhile, under the new communist regime, tens of thousands of Vietnamese were sent to work or study in Eastern Bloc countries of Central and Eastern Europe as development aid to the Vietnamese government and for migrants to acquire skills that were to be brought home to help with development.[150]
^The number of Vietnamese nationals currently in Taiwan with a valid residence permit was 259,375 as of 30 April 2024 (155,147 males, 104,228 females). The number of Vietnamese nationals with a valid residence permit in Taiwan (including those currently not in Taiwan) was 295,051 as of 30 April 2024 (174,108 males, 120,943 females).[10] The number of foreign spouses of Vietnamese origin in Taiwan was 111,529 as of April 2022 (2,383 males, 109,146 females).[11] According to the Taiwanese Ministry of the Interior, between 1993 and 2021, 94,015 Vietnamese nationals became naturalized citizens in the Republic of China.[12] It was also estimated that 70% of Vietnamese brides in Taiwan had obtained Taiwanese nationality as of 2014,[13] with many renouncing Vietnamese citizenship in the process of naturalization, in accordance with Taiwanese law.[14]
An estimated 200,000 children were born to Vietnamese mothers and Taiwanese fathers, according to a report by Voice of Vietnam in 2014.[15] According to Taiwanese Ministry of Education, in 2021, 105,237 children born to foreign spouses of Vietnamese origin were enrolled in educational institutions across Taiwan (4,601 in kindergartens, 23,719 in primary schools, 17,904 in secondary schools, 31,497 in high schools, and 27,516 in universities/colleges),[16] a decrease of nearly 3,000 students compared to the previous year, which recorded a total of 108,037 students (5,168 in kindergartens, 25,752 in primary schools, 22,462 in secondary schools, 33,430 in high schools, and 21,225 in universities/colleges).[17]
^According to a report released by the Ministry of the Interior and Safety, as of 2022, there were 209,373 Vietnamese nationals in South Korea (those without Korean nationality), including 41,555 foreign workers; 36,362 marriage immigrants; 68,181 international students and 63,274 people classified as "Others". Additionally, the report revealed that 50,660 Vietnamese individuals had acquired Korean nationality, and there were also 103,295 children born to parents of Vietnamese origin in South Korea.[21]
^This data only included Vietnamese Nationals in Mainland China, Excluding Gin people and data in Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan.
^this data only included Gin people in Mainland China.
^外僑居留人數統計表11209 [Statistical Table for the Number of Foreign Residents as of April 2024]. National Immigration Agency, Ministry of the Interior, Republic of China (Taiwan). 30 April 2024. Archived from the original on 14 June 2024. Retrieved 14 June 2024.
^統計資料 [Statistics]. National Immigration Agency, Ministry of the Interior, Republic of China (Taiwan). 2022. Archived from the original on 27 May 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
^L. Anh Hoang; Cheryll Alipio (2019). Money and Moralities in Contemporary Asia. Amsterdam University Press. p. 64. ISBN9789048543151. It is estimated that there are up to 150,000 Vietnamese migrants in Russia, but the vast majority of them are undocumented.
^Dlhopolec, Peter (3 March 2022). "The Vietnamese campaign for their rights: "We belong here"". The Slovak Spectator. Archived from the original on 27 May 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2022. The 2021 data published by the Foreigners' Police reveals that 7,235 people from Vietnam have permanent or temporary residence in the country.
^Theobald, Ulrich (2018) "Shang Dynasty – Political History" in ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art. quote: "Enemies of the Shang state were called fang 方 "regions", like the Tufang 土方, which roamed the northern region of Shanxi, the Guifang 鬼方 and Gongfang 𢀛方 in the northwest, the Qiangfang 羌方, Suifang 繐方, Yuefang 戉方, Xuanfang 亘方 and Zhoufang 周方 in the west, as well as the Yifang 夷方 and Renfang 人方 in the southeast."
^The Annals of Lü Buwei, translated by John Knoblock and Jeffrey Riegel, Stanford University Press (2000), p. 510. ISBN978-0-8047-3354-0. "For the most part, there are no rulers to the south of the Yang and Han Rivers, in the confederation of the Hundred Yue tribes."
^Lüshi Chunqiu "Examination on Relying on Rulers" "Relying on Rulers" text: "揚、漢之南，百越之際，敝凱諸、夫風、餘靡之地，縛婁、陽禺、驩兜之國，多無君" translation: South of the Yang and Han rivers, among the Hundred Yuè, the lands of Bikaizhu, Fufeng, Yumi, the nations of Fulou, Yang'ou, Huandou, most had no rulers"
^Sagart, Laurent (2008), "The expansion of Setaria farmers in East Asia", Past human migrations in East Asia: matching archaeology, linguistics and genetics, pp. 141–145, The cradle of the Vietic branch of Austroasiatic is very likely in north Vietnam, at least 1000km to the south‑west of coastal Fújiàn
^McColl et al. 2018. "Ancient Genomics Reveals Four Prehistoric Migration Waves into Southeast Asia". Preprint. Published in Science. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/278374v1 cited in Alves, Mark (10 May 2019). "Data from Multiple Disciplines Connecting Vietic with the Dong Son Culture". Conference: "Contact Zones and Colonialism in Southeast Asia and China's South (~221 BCE – 1700 CE)"At: Pennsylvania State University
^Sidwell, Paul. 2015b. Phylogeny, innovations, and correlations in the prehistory of Austroasiatic. Paper presented at the workshop Integrating inferences about our past: new findings and current issues in the peopling of the Pacific and South East Asia, 22–23 June 2015, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.
^Kelley, Liam C.; Hong, Hai Dinh (2021), "Competing Imagined Ancestries: The Lạc Việt, the Vietnamese, and the Zhuang", in Gillen, Jamie; Kelley, Liam C.; Le, Ha Pahn (eds.), Vietnam at the Vanguard: New Perspectives Across Time, Space, and Community, Springer Singapore, pp. 88–107, ISBN978-9-81165-055-0
^Kiernan 2019, pp. 127, 131 [Quote (p.131): From the tenth century, Vietnamese history comes into its own. After millennia of undocumented prehistory and a thousand years of imperial rule documented only in Chinese, new indigenous historical sources throw increasing light on political, economic, and cultural developments in the territory that had comprised the Protectorate of Annam. How new were these developments? A tenth-century ruler revived for a second time the ancient name of the kingdom of Nán Yuè in its Vietnamese form, Nam Việt. But this new kingdom would then adopt a new name, Đại Việt (Great Việt), and unlike its classical Yuè predecessors and short-lived tenth-century counterparts in south China, it successfully resisted reintegration into the empire. The new autonomous Việt realm inherited both the Sino-Vietnamese hereditary aristocracy and the provincial geography of Tang Annam. From north to south, it was a diverse region of five provinces and border marches. Restive ethnic Tai and other upland groups, formerly allied to the defunct Nanzhao kingdom, straddled the mountainous northern frontier. Lowland Jiao province in the central plain of the Red and Bạch Đằng rivers was the most Sinicized region, home to most of the northern settlers and traders and an influential Sino-Vietnamese Buddhist community, as well as Vietic-speaking rice farmers. Here the Vietnamese language was emerging as settlers adopted the Proto-Việt-Mường tongue of their indigenous neighbors, infusing it with much of their Annamese Middle Chinese vocabulary].
^Golzio, Karl-Heinz (2004), Inscriptions of Campā based on the editions and translations of Abel Bergaigne, Étienne Aymonier, Louis Finot, Édouard Huber and other French scholars and of the work of R. C. Majumdar. Newly presented, with minor corrections of texts and translations, together with calculations of given dates, Shaker Verlag, pp. 163–164, Original Old Cam text: ...(pa)kā ra vuḥ kmīrayvan· si mak· nan· di yām̃ hajai tralauṅ· svon· dadam̃n· sthāna tra ra vuḥ urām̃ dinan· pajem̃ karadā yam̃ di nagara campa.
^Hillmann 2005, p. 87 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHillmann2005 (help)
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Page, Melvin Eugene; Sonnenburg, Penny M. (2003). Colonialism: An International, Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN978-1-57607-335-3.
Phan, Huy Lê; Nguyễn, Quang Ngọc; Nguyễn, Đình Lễ (1997). The Country Life in the Red River Delta.
Thomas, Martin (2012). Rubber, coolies and communists: In Violence and Colonial Order: Police, Workers and Protest in the European Colonial Empires, 1918–1940 (Critical Perspectives on Empire from Part II – Colonial case studies: French, British and Belgian). pp. 141–176. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139045643.009. ISBN978-1-139-04564-3.
Tucker, Spencer (1999). Vietnam. University of Kentucky Press. ISBN978-0813121215.
Tucker, Spencer C. (2011). The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History, 2nd Edition [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN978-1-85109-961-0.
Walker, Hugh Dyson (2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. ISBN978-1477265161.
Willbanks, James H. (2013). Vietnam War Almanac: An In-Depth Guide to the Most Controversial Conflict in American History. Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN978-1-62636-528-5.
Yü, Ying-shih (1986), "Han foreign relations", in Twitchett, Denis C.; Fairbank, John King (eds.), The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–463
Journal articles and theses
Crozier, Brian (1955). "The Diem Regime in Southern Vietnam". Far Eastern Survey. 24 (4): 49–56. doi:10.2307/3023970. JSTOR3023970.
Gittinger, J. Price (1959). "Communist Land Policy in North Viet Nam". Far Eastern Survey. 28 (8): 113–126. doi:10.2307/3024603. JSTOR3024603.
Goodkind, Daniel (1995). "Rising Gender Inequality in Vietnam Since Reunification". Pacific Affairs. 68 (3): 342–359. doi:10.2307/2761129. JSTOR2761129.
Hirschman, Charles; Preston, Samuel; Vu, Manh Loi (1995). "Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New Estimate". Population and Development Review. 21 (4): 783–812. doi:10.2307/2137774. JSTOR2137774.
Matsumura, Hirofumi; Nguyen, Lan Cuong; Nguyen, Kim Thuy; Anezaki, Tomoko (2001). "Dental Morphology of the Early Hoabinian, the Neolithic Da But and the Metal Age Dong Son Civilized Peoples in Vietnam". Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie. 83 (1): 59–73. doi:10.1127/zma/83/2001/59. JSTOR25757578. PMID11372468.
Marr, David G. (2010). Vietnamese, Chinese, and Overseas Chinese during the Chinese Occupation of Northern Indochina (1945–1946), Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies, Vol. 4: 129–139.
Dutton, George; Werner, Jayne; Whitmore, John K., eds. (2012). Sources of Vietnamese Tradition. Introduction to Asian Civilizations. Columbia University Press. ISBN978-0-231-13862-8.
Chapuis, Oscar (1995). A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tu Duc. Greenwood Press. ISBN0313296227.
Kim, Nam; Lai Van Toi; Trinh Hoang Hiep (2010). "Co Loa: an investigation of Vietnam's ancient capital". Antiquity. 84 (326): 1011–1027. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00067041. S2CID162065918.
Nam C. Kim (2015). The Origins of Ancient Vietnam. Oxford University Press. ISBN9780199980895.
McLeod, Mark; Nguyen, Thi Dieu (2001). Culture and Customs of Vietnam. Greenwood (published 30 June 2001). ISBN978-0-313-36113-5.
Miksic, John Norman; Yian, Goh Geok (2016). Ancient Southeast Asia. Routledge. ISBN978-0415735544.
Huang, Lan Xiang (黃蘭翔); 本院台灣史研究所副研究員 (December 2004). 華人聚落在越南的深植與變遷：以會安為例(PDF) (Report). Research Center for Humanities and Social Sciences, Academica Sinica. Archived from the original(PDF) on 1 August 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2014.
Lee, Qingxin (李庆新) (30 November 2010). "越南明香与明乡社"(PDF). 广东省社会科学院 历史研究所广东 广州 510610. Archived from the original(PDF) on 8 January 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2012.
Nguyen, Xuan Tinh; et al. (2007). Thông báo văn hoá dân gian 2006. Vietnam: Nhà xuá̂t bản Khoa học xa̋ hội. Retrieved 13 December 2010.
Dror, Olga (2018). Making Two Vietnams: War and Youth Identities, 1965–1975. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-1-108-47012-4.
Nguyen, Duy Lap (2020). The Unimagined Community: Imperialism and Culture in South Vietnam. Manchester University Press. ISBN978-1-5261-4396-9.
Nguyen, Lien-Hang T. (2012). Hanoi's War: An International History of the War for Peace in Vietnam. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN978-0-8078-3551-7.
Holmgren, Jennifer (1980). Chinese colonisation of northern Vietnam: administrative geography and political development in the Tongking Delta, first to sixth centuries A.D. Australian National University, Faculty of Asian Studies: distributed by Australian University Press. ISBN978-0-909879-12-9.
de Laet, Sigfried J.; Herrmann, Joachim (1996). History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. Routledge. ISBN978-92-3-102812-0.
Protected Areas and Development Partnership (2003). Review of Protected Areas and Development in the Four Countries of the Lower Mekong River Region. ICEM. ISBN978-0-9750332-4-1.
Koskoff, Ellen (2008). The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: The Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia. Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-99404-0.
Calò, Ambra (2009). Trails of Bronze Drums Across Early Southeast Asia: Exchange Routes and Connected Cultural Spheres. Archaeopress. ISBN978-1-4073-0396-3.
Fröhlich, Holger L.; Schreinemachers, Pepijn; Stahr, Karl; Clemens, Gerhard (2013). Sustainable Land Use and Rural Development in Southeast Asia: Innovations and Policies for Mountainous Areas. Springer Science + Business Media. ISBN978-3-642-33377-4.
Choy, Lee Khoon (2013). Golden Dragon And Purple Phoenix: The Chinese And Their Multi-ethnic Descendants In Southeast Asia. World Scientific. ISBN978-981-4518-49-9.
de Mora, Javier Calvo; Wood, Keith (2014). Practical Knowledge in Teacher Education: Approaches to teacher internship programmes. Taylor & Francis. ISBN978-1-317-80333-1.
Tran, Tri C.; Le, Tram (2017). Vietnamese Stories for Language Learners: Traditional Folktales in Vietnamese and English Text (MP3 Downloadable Audio Included). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN978-1-4629-1956-7.
Cosslett, Tuyet L.; Cosslett, Patrick D. (2017). Sustainable Development of Rice and Water Resources in Mainland Southeast Asia and Mekong River Basin. Springer Publishing. ISBN978-981-10-5613-0.
van Khè, Tran (1972). "Means of Preservation and Diffusion of Traditional Music in Vietnam". Asian Music. 3 (1): 40–44. doi:10.2307/834104. JSTOR834104.
Van Khê, Trân (1985). "Chinese Music and Musical Traditions of Eastern Asia". The World of Music, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Bildung. 27 (1): 78–90. JSTOR43562680.
Gough, Kathleen (1986). "The Hoa in Vietnam". Contemporary Marxism, Social Justice/Global Options (12/13): 81–91. JSTOR29765847.
Kimura, Tetsusaburo (1986). "Vietnam—Ten Years of Economic Struggle". Asian Survey. 26 (10): 1039–1055. doi:10.2307/2644255. JSTOR2644255.
Thayer, Carlyle A. (1994). "Sino-Vietnamese Relations: The Interplay of Ideology and National Interest". Asian Survey. 34 (6): 513–528. doi:10.2307/2645338. JSTOR2645338.
Amer, Ramses (1996). "Vietnam's Policies and the Ethnic Chinese since 1975". Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute. 11 (1): 76–104. JSTOR41056928.
Xuan Dinh, Quan (2000). "The Political Economy of Vietnam's Transformation Process". Contemporary Southeast Asia. 22 (2): 360–388. doi:10.1355/CS22-2G (inactive 2 December 2024). JSTOR25798497.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)
Endres, Kirsten W. (2001). "Local Dynamics of Renegotiating Ritual Space in Northern Vietnam: The Case of the "Dinh"". Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia. 16 (1): 70–101. doi:10.1355/sj16-1c (inactive 2 December 2024). JSTOR41057051. PMID19195125.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)
Freeman, Nick J. (2002). "United States's economic sanctions against Vietnam: International business and development repercussions". The Columbia Journal of World Business. 28 (2): 12–22. doi:10.1016/0022-5428(93)90038-Q.
Hoang Vuong, Quan; Dung Tran, Tri (2009). "The Cultural Dimensions of the Vietnamese Private Entrepreneurship". The IUP Journal of Entrepreneurship Development. SSRN1442384 – via Social Science Research Network.
Hong Phuong, Nguyen (2012). "Seismic Hazard Studies in Vietnam"(PDF). GEM Semi-Annual Meeting – Academia Sinica. Archived from the original(PDF) on 10 October 2018 – via Taiwan Earthquake Research Center.
Chapman, Bruce; Liu, Amy Y.C. (2013). "Repayment Burdens of Student Loans for Vietnamese Higher Education". Crawford School Research Paper. SSRN2213076 – via Social Science Research Network.
Overland, Indra (2017). "Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier". Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) and Myanmar Institute of International and Strategic Studies (MISIS). ISSN1894-650X – via ResearchGate.
Baccini, Leonardo; Impullitti, Giammario; Malesky, Edmund J. (2017). "Globalization and State Capitalism: Assessing Vietnam's Accession to the WTO". CESifo Working Paper Series. SSRN3036319 – via Social Science Research Network.
Dang Vu, Hoai Nam; Nielsen, Martin Reinhardt (2018). "Understanding utilitarian and hedonic values determining the demand for rhino horn in Vietnam". Human Dimensions of Wildlife. 23 (5): 417–432. Bibcode:2018HDW....23..417D. doi:10.1080/10871209.2018.1449038. S2CID46933047 – via Taylor & Francis.
Truong, Nhu; Vo, Dang H.; Nguyen, Dzung (2018). Mekong State of Land(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 6 October 2018. Retrieved 16 October 2018 – via Mekong Region Land Governance.
Chamberlain, James R. (2000). "The origin of the Sek: implications for Tai and Vietnamese history"(PDF). In Burusphat, Somsonge (ed.). Proceedings of the International Conference on Tai Studies, July 29–31, 1998. Bangkok, Thailand: Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University. ISBN974-85916-9-7. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
Schliesinger, Joachim (2018a). Origin of the Tai People 5―Cradle of the Tai People and the Ethnic Setup Today Volume 5 of Origin of the Tai People. Booksmango. ISBN978-1641531825.
Schliesinger, Joachim (2018b). Origin of the Tai People 6―Northern Tai-Speaking People of the Red River Delta and Their Habitat Today Volume 6 of Origin of the Tai People. Booksmango. ISBN978-1641531832.
