The Government of India has social welfare and social security schemes for India's citizens funded either by the central government, state government or concurrently. Schemes that the central government fully funds are referred to as "central sector schemes" (CS). In contrast, schemes mainly funded by the center and implemented by the states are "centrally sponsored schemes" (CSS).[1] In the 2022 Union budget of India, there are 740 central sector (CS) schemes.[2][3] and 65 (+/-7) centrally sponsored schemes (CSS).[4]
From 131 CSSs in February 2021, the union government aimed to restructure/revamp/rationalize these by the next year.[5] In 2022 CSS's numbered 65 with a combined funding of ₹442,781 crore (equivalent to ₹5.0 trillion or US$60 billion in 2023).[6] In 2022, there were 157 CSs and CSSs with individual funding of over ₹500 crore (equivalent to ₹561 crore or US$67 million in 2023) each.[7] Central sector scheme actual spending in 2017-18 was ₹587,785 crore (equivalent to ₹6.6 trillion or US$79 billion in 2023),[8] in 2019-20 it was ₹757,091 crore (equivalent to ₹8.5 trillion or US$100 billion in 2023) while the budgeted amount for 2021-22 is ₹1,051,703 crore (equivalent to ₹12 trillion or US$140 billion in 2023).[9] Schemes can also be categorised as flagship schemes.[10] 10 flagship schemes were allocated ₹1.5 lakhcrore (equivalent to ₹1.7 trillion or US$20 billion in 2023) in the 2021 Union budget of India.[10] The subsidy for kerosene, started in the 1950s, was slowly decreased since 2009 and eliminated in 2022.[11][12][13]
Aims at improving the quality as well as the reach of products and services of artisans and craftspeople and to ensure that they are integrated into the domestic and global value chains.[19]
Scheme to redevelop existing railway stations and make stations more comfortable and convenient for passengers, and to transform them into vibrant city centers.[20]
PM-eBus Sewa supports public transport by deploying 10,000 electric buses under a PPP model. It aids in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and includes urban mobility projects like the National Common Mobility Card for seamless travel in urban areas.[21]
The Agnipath Scheme will be the sole method for recruiting soldiers below the rank of commissioned officers into the three branches of the armed forces. Under this scheme, all recruits, referred to as "Agniveers," will serve for a fixed term of four years. "Agniveer" will also be introduced as a new military rank.
PM Poshan Shakti Nirman Abhiyaan (PM-POSHAN, Prime Minister's Overarching Scheme for Holistic Nourishment, (lit) PM Nutrition Power Building Scheme)
Revamped version of 1995 Midday Meal Scheme to provide free lunch to school children. Financial outlay in 2022 was ₹10,233 crore (equivalent to ₹110 billion or US$1.4 billion in 2023).[7] Grouped under the umbrella scheme "Saksham Anganwadi and POSHAN 2.0", it aims to reducing stunting, under-nutrition, anemia, and low birth weight.[22][23]
To improve school education in six states covering 10 million teachers.[25][26] This is a continuation of GOI-World Bank efforts since 1994 towards the same goal.[25] Implemented through Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan.[25]
Svamitva Yojana (Survey of Villages Abadi and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Area)
CS
MoPR
2020
Rural development
To help in mapping of properties in villages with the help of drones. Aims in helping to reduce disputes over property. The portal will help in making it easier for villagers to avail bank loans.[27]
Employment campaign for the poor following coronavirus pandemic covering 12 ministries and 6 states. Launched on 20 June 2020 and ended on 22 October 2020.[28]
Nationwide welfare measures for farmers in the fisheries sector. For the period 2020-2024 estimated allocation of ₹20,050 crore (equivalent to ₹220 billion or US$2.7 billion in 2023) for implementation.[29]
Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme began in 1972.[31] Restructured into National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP) in 2009.[32][31] To provide water to each rural household through individual taps. Financial outlay in 2022 is ₹60,000 crore (equivalent to ₹670 billion or US$8.1 billion in 2023).[7] Consists of 'Har Ghar Nal Se Jal' or 'Nal Se Jal Scheme'.[31][33] Also Har Ghar Jal.
World Bank funded scheme (50:50) to improve ground water management with focus on Panchayats. Implementation in seven states between 2020 and 2026 with initial funding of ₹6,000 crore (equivalent to ₹67 billion or US$810 million in 2023).[34]
For the installation of solar pumps and other renewable power plants across the nation targeted towards farmers.[35] Towards Paris Agreement targets for renewable energy.[36]
Social security to unorganized sector and through voluntary contribution and monthly pension after 60 through direct benefit transfer. Implemented by LIC and CSCs.
Medium-distance superfast express service operated by Indian Railways. It is a reserved, air-conditioned chair car service connecting cities that are less than 800 km.
For farmer welfare through creating a profitable ecosystem for selected products. Consists of sub-schemes such as Price Support Scheme (PSS) and Price Deficiency Payment Scheme (PDPS).[37]
Ayushman Bharat Yojana (AB PM-JAY, Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana, People's Health Scheme)
Ayushman Bharat National Health Protection Scheme (AB-NHPS) aims to provide free access to healthcare for 50 crore people in the country.[38] Implemented across India expect 3 states/UTs.[39] By July 2021 Ayushman cards issued numbered 16.14 crore.[39] By March 2022 hospitalisations under the scheme had crossed 30 million with a valuation of ₹35,000 crore (equivalent to ₹390 billion or US$4.7 billion in 2023).[40]
To improve overall effectiveness of schools from pre-nursery to class 12 and other measures.[41] In 2022 it financial outlay allocated ₹37,383 crore (equivalent to ₹420 billion or US$5.0 billion in 2023).[7] Subsumes Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and others. World Bank supported.[25]
PM Jan Vikas Karyakaram (PMJVK, PM People Progress Programme)
Last-mile electrification for all households in India. The program focuses on providing power to unelectrified homes, boosting quality of life and aiding socio-economic growth in rural and remote areas.
Launched as the Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana in 2010. Renamed in 2017. A cash incentive of not less than ₹6,000 (equivalent to ₹6,400 or US$76 in 2023) to pregnant/lactating women.[46][47]
Digital Payment Infrastructure
—
Multiple
2016
Financial Inclusion
Encourages digital transactions through platforms like UPI, RuPay, and FASTag. It is a part of India’s strategy to create a cashless economy, improving financial inclusion and transparency while reducing reliance on cash-based transactions.
Launched to provide free LPG connections to women from below poverty line families.[48] While the scheme mainly addresses distribution of cylinders, their usage has been in question.[49][50]
Regional Connectivity Scheme (RCS) - UDAN promotes affordable air travel by connecting unserved and underserved airports. It boosts regional connectivity and supports infrastructure upgrades for tier-2 and tier-3 cities.
Loans for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and women entrepreneurs for greenfield enterprises. Loans can be applied online.[52] By July 2021, 1.16 lakh loans disbursed amounting to ₹26,204 crore (equivalent to ₹290 billion or US$3.5 billion in 2023).[53] By 2022, 81% of loan beneficiaries are women.[54]
Multi-pronged project to improve hydrology related practices. World Bank supported.[55][56] Australian Water Partnership (AWP) provides technical assistance. The Hydrology Project started in 1995 and was expanded through the National Hydrology Project in 2016.[57]
Multi-pronged scheme focusing on improving agricultural productivity through irrigation support and better practices. In 2022 financial outlay is ₹10,954 crore (equivalent to ₹120 billion or US$1.5 billion in 2023).[7] Part of Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna.
PM Mudra Yojana (PM Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency Scheme)
MUDRA is a financial institution for funding small businesses.[58] 34,42,00,000 beneficiaries have received ₹18.6 lakhcrore (equivalent to ₹21 trillion or US$250 billion in 2023).[59] New entrepreneurs consist 22% of the beneficiaries.[60]
It aims to ensure that government services are available to citizens electronically and people get benefits from the latest information and communication technology.[64] Has expanded into production linked incentives, promotion of electronics manufacturing, R&D and improvement of the National Knowledge Network and electronic governance.[7]
Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric (& Hybrid) Vehicles in India Scheme (FAME India Scheme)
Original form 1985.[66] Provides financial assistance to rural poor for constructing their houses themselves. This generates income and employment as well.[67] Sample housing designs have been proposed through UNDP, MoRD and IIT, Delhi collaboration.[68][69]
To enable better living and drive economic growth stressing on the need for people centric urban planning and development. It envisages a "Slum Free India" in which every citizen has access to basic civic infrastructure and social amenities.[70] By March 2024, 56,20,000 units had been delivered to beneficiaries.[71]
Original form in 2010 as the Swavalamban Yojana.[72]
A pension program that allows people to make voluntary contributions within a certain range with a matching government contribution to receive pension in the future. By September 2021, non-metros subscribers numbered 3,77,00,000.[73]
This accident insurance scheme is for individuals and can be renewed every year. By May 2021, over 80,000 claims valuing ₹1,629 crore (equivalent to ₹18 billion or US$220 million in 2023) registered.[74]
Replaced the "Bachat Lamp Yojana". Reduces the cost of energy-saving compact fluorescent lamps. By the end of 2021, 36,78,00,000 LEDs were distributed resulting in energy savings and reduction in emissions.[76]
To provide encouragement to youth for development of employable skills by providing monetary rewards by recognition of prior learning or by undergoing certification training at affiliated centres.[77][78]
The scheme under Beti Bachao Beti Padhao primarily ensures equitable share to a girl child in resources and savings of a family in which she is generally discriminated as against a male child.[80]
The objective of this project is to help job-seekers land up at the job they deserve.
Under this scheme, an online job-portal named as National Career Service portal has been launched which acts as a common platform for job-seekers, employers, skill providers, government departments, placement organisations and counsellors.[85][86]
Programme for creation of rural electricity infrastructure and household electrification for providing access to electricity to rural households.[87] Initially Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana launched 2005.
Central Rural Sanitation Programme (CRSP) launched in 1986. In 1999 it became the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC).[89] Multiple objectives including elimination of open defecation, addressing manual scavenging, and good sanitation and waste related practices.[89]
National Mission for Financial Inclusion to ensure access to financial services. Replaced 2011 Swabhiman. The scheme resulted in 36.86 crore new in-use bank accounts by mid-2021.[90][91]
Aims at all-round development of adolescent boys and make them self-reliant, gender-sensitive and aware citizens, when they grow up. It covers all adolescent boys (both school going and out of school) in the age-group of 11 to 18 years.[94]
To develop model villages.[95][96] 223 CS/ CSS and 1,806 state schemes converge under SAGY.[97] By 2016, members of parliament adopted 703 Gram Panchayats.[98]
Centre to provide multiple form of aid and shelter to women who have face violence.[100] By 2018, 234 centres had been set up.[101] By 2021 there were 700 centres with plans to set up centres in foreign countries.[102] Some centres lack required facilities.[103][104]
State level electronic benefit transfer and Direct Cash Transfer piloted before.[105][106][107] Under the Cabinet Secretariat and Ministry of Finance.[108] By 2022, over 300 schemes and 50 ministries are implemented using DBT.[108][109]
Formed in 2010 by combining Kishori Shakti Yojana and Nutrition Programme for Adolescent Girls (NPAG) schemes into the Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls (RGSEAG) or Sabla.[110] Implemented with Umbrella Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme,[111] and then placed under Saksham Anganwadi & Mission Poshan 2.0.[112] Empowering adolescent girls aged 11–18 years with focus on out-of-school girls by improvement in their nutritional and health status and upgrading various skills like home skills, life skills and vocational skills.[113]
To improve infrastructure towards excellence in science and research. Universities to have benefitted include Cochin University of Science and Technology,[115] Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam,[116] Kashmir university,[117] Jammu University,[118] Punjab University,[119] University of Delhi,[120] Jadavpur University[121] and Amity University, Rajasthan.[122]
Health insurance to poor (BPL), domestic workers, MGNERGA workers, rikshaw-pullers, building and other construction workers, and many other categories as may be identified by the respective states.[125]
Now subsumed under Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure (AMI).[130] Creation of scientific storage capacity with allied facilities in rural areas to meet the requirements of farmers for storing farm produce, processed farm produce and agricultural inputs. Improve their marketability through promotion of grading, standardisation and quality control of agricultural produce.[131]
Allocation in 2022-23 crossed ₹10,400 crore (equivalent to ₹120 billion or US$1.4 billion in 2023).[132] Includes Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojna (Per Drop More Crop) and agricultural mechanization.[7]
Legal guarantee for one hundred days of employment in every financial year to adult members of any rural household willing to do public work-related unskilled manual work at the statutory minimum wage of Rs. 120 per day in 2009 prices.[134][135]
The scheme enables Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) including small and medium-sized municipalities to raise credit from the market on a sustainable basis to meet their investment needs. PFDF will provide credit enhancement to ULBs to access market borrowings based on their credit worthiness through state level pooled mechanism.[136][137][138]
One-time cash incentive to poor pregnant women and Accredited Social Health Activist (ASHA) for institutional/home births through skilled assistance to reduce child-mother mortality.[141]
To improve India's health sector. Financial outlay in 2022 was ₹28,859 crore (equivalent to ₹320 billion or US$3.9 billion in 2023). Includes a number of (subsumed) programes such as National Mental Health Programme (1982), National Blindness Control Programme (1976) and National Vector Borne Diseases Control Programme (2003).[7]
Initiated as a pilot in 2005 and scaled up to all districts by 2014. Insurance to cattle and attaining qualitative improvement in livestock and their products.[142]
Special Accelerated Road Development Programme (SARDP-NE)
Educational facilities (residential schools) for girls belonging to SC, ST, OBC, minority communities and families below the poverty line (BPL) in educationally backward blocks.
Original form was the 1999 scheme to Promote Voluntary Action for Persons with Disabilities, with the aim of implementing Persons With Disabilities Act, 1995. DDRS to create an enabling environment to ensure equal opportunities, equity, social justice and empowerment of persons with disabilities.[144][145]
PM Swasthya Suraksha Yojana (PMSSY, PM Health Protection Scheme)
CS
MoHFW
2003
Health
Improving distribution and accessibility of health services. New AIIMS will be constructed under the scheme.[146]
Under the scheme, 1 crore of the poorest among the poor (BPL, below poverty line) families covered under the targeted public distribution system are identified. Issue of ration cards following the recognition of Antyodaya families; unique quota cards to be recognised and "Antyodaya Ration Card" must be given to the Antyodaya families. The scheme has been further expanded twice by additional 50 lakh BPL families each in June 2003 and in August 2004, thus covering 2 crore families under the AAY scheme.[149]
National fellowship and scholarship programme to encourage students to take up research careers in the areas of basic sciences, engineering and medicine. Exam administered by the Indian Institute of Science.[150][151]
Each MP has the choice to suggest to the District Collector for works to the tune of Rs 5 crores per annum to be taken up in their constituency. The Rajya Sabha Member of Parliament can recommend works in one or more districts in the State from where he/she has been elected.
Financial assistance to fishermen for construction of house, community hall for recreation and common working place and installation of tube-wells for drinking water.
Launched in 9 districts in 1987 and has been expanded in 2005 to 250 districts in 21 different states. The objective of this project is to eliminate child labour in hazardous industries by 2010.
Under this scheme, the target group is all children below 14 years of age who are working in occupations and processes listed in the Schedule to the Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Act, 1986.
The first urea subsidy scheme was in 1977 in the form of Retention Price cum Subsidy scheme (RPS). From ₹4,389 crore (US$2.51 billion) in 1990 to ₹75,849 crore (US$17.43 billion) in 2008. As %ofGDP this is an increase from 0.8% to 1.5%. In 2022-23 financial outlay is ₹63,222 crore (equivalent to ₹710 billion or US$8.5 billion in 2023).[156][157]
The scheme aims to tackle malnutrition and health problems in children below 6 years of age and their mothers by providing cash incentives conditional upon registration at Anganwadi centres and vaccination of newborn children.[100]
In 1972 the total food subsidy was ₹117 crore (US$154.84 million). In 1980 it was ₹662 crore (US$840.1 million) and ₹5,250 crore (US$1.62 billion) in 1995.[158] In 2022 financial outlay was ₹2.06 lakhcrore (equivalent to ₹2.3 trillion or US$28 billion in 2023). Allocation in 2020-21 had reached ₹5.41 lakhcrore (equivalent to ₹6.1 trillion or US$73 billion in 2023), an all-time peak.[159][160]
^Can be labelled as a scheme (Yojana), mission, campaign (Abhiyaan), programme (Karyakaram), project or plan. There is no textbook clarity on the differentiation between the labels including hierarchy.[18]
Evaluations
The Development Monitoring and Evaluation Office (DMEO) under the NITI Aayog is responsible for evaluations.[15] Evaluation problems exist.[15] Ministries such as the transport ministry can show immediate physical outcomes of its schemes whereas in health related schemes, in certain cases, there is no output to show for.[15] Surveys trying to ascertain whether someone has benefitted from a scheme or not can result in someone denying being benefitted with the hope of receiving the benefit again.[16] This kind of respondent bias in its various form is being addressed by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.[16] The Comptroller and Auditor General of India also assesses the implementation of these schemes.[17]
Effectiveness
A number of schemes of successive governments are effective, while others are not effective.[161][162][163][164][165] Despite various schemes and programmes targeted towards hunger, nutrition remains a severe challenge.[166] The Supreme Court has advised the government to keep finances in mind when coming out with schemes.[167] An example given was the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, a shortage of both schools and teachers.[167] Since their inception, flagship welfare schemes of the Modi government such as Namami Gange and Ayushman Bharat have been sanctioned more than what has been spent.[168] A key issue is identifying who to transfer scheme benefits to and how.[169] In 2017 Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) called Beti Bachao Beti Padhao a failure as per its own objectives.[170]
Awareness
The government runs various initiatives to increase awareness of government schemes.[171][172][173][174] Awareness of schemes affects the implementation of the schemes as well as who beneficiaries vote for and who they hold responsible for the success or failure of a scheme - the state or center.[175][176] In 2021-2022 the Government of Goa launched a scheme Swayampurna Goa which involves a government official making eligible beneficiaries aware of the schemes and how to avail them.[177][178] Nearly 80% of Beti Bachao Beti Padhao funds during 2016-2019 was spent on media advocacy.[179]
Political credit and blame
There is no official or legalised credit-sharing mechanism between the center and states for the schemes.[176]
Rationalisation is a means to improve governance of schemes.[189] In 2002 there were about 360 CSSs.[190] In 2022 there were 704 CSs.[3] In 2016 a committee came out with the recommendation of rationalising, revamping and restructuring 66 CSSs, grouping them into umbrella schemes, core schemes and optional schemes on the basis of which identification would be easier and funding patterns would differ, among other recommendations.[191][192]
In the case of a mission, or a scheme or programme becoming a mission or being coupled under a mission, it can mean a signal of prioritization with regard to implementation and funding.[18] Similar schemes can be merged into each other and revamped.[6] A mission can be merged into a new scheme.
^"Features of PM-KISAN Scheme". Press Information Bureau. Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Government of India. 17 March 2021. Retrieved 11 April 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^ abc"Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)"(PDF). Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
^"About Samagra Shiksha". Samagra Shiksha. Department of School Education & Literacy, Ministry of Education. Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
^"FAME India Scheme". Ministry of Heavy Industries & Public Enterprises, Government of India. Press Information Bureau. 9 July 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^"Saansad Adarsh Gram Yojana". Press Information Bureau. Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 13 April 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^"Empowerment of Adolescent Girls". Press Information Bureau. Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India. 19 March 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^"Scheme For Adolescent Girls". Press Information Bureau. Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India. 23 March 2022. Retrieved 13 April 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^"Clean Energy Research Initiative". Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
^"INSPIRE programme". Press Information Bureau. Ministry of Science & Technology, Government of India. 2 February 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^"Coverage and Budget of RSBY". Press Information Bureau. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. 24 July 2018. Retrieved 13 April 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^Khan, Harun R (18 July 2013). "Speeches- Financing Strategies for Urban Infrastructure: Trends and Challenges". Reserve Bank of India. Inaugural address delivered by Harun R Khan, Deputy Governor, Reserve Bank of India at the Conference on Financing Strategies for Urban Infrastructure organized by the Centre for Advanced Financial Research and Learning (CAFRAL). Retrieved 12 April 2022.
^"MSME Schemes"(PDF). National Institute for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (ni-msme) (An organisation of the Ministry of MSME, Govt. of India).
^"National Creche Scheme". Press Information Bureau. Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India. 13 March 2020. Retrieved 14 April 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^"Janani Suraksha Yojna". Press Information Bureau. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. 31 July 2015. Retrieved 12 April 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^"Swadhar Greh Scheme". Press Information Bureau. Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India. 3 December 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
^"Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY)". Department of Food and Public Distribution; Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution; Government of India. Archived from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 9 April 2022.
^Rajan, S. Irudaya (2001). "Social Assistance for Poor Elderly: How Effective?". Economic and Political Weekly. 36 (8): 613–617. ISSN0012-9976. JSTOR4410312.
^Ravinutala, Sid (2016). "Redesigning India's urea policy"(PDF). In fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master in Public Administration in International Development, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.
^George, P. S. (1996). "Public Distribution System, Food Subsidy and Production Incentives". Economic and Political Weekly. 31 (39): A140–A144. ISSN0012-9976. JSTOR4404627.
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