At no point during Ancient or Imperial China was there a formalized means to confer legitimate succession between rulers.[5] From the Zhou dynasty onwards, monarchs justified their reigns by claiming the Mandate of Heaven (天命; Tianming).[6][b] The mandate held that a ruler and their successors had permission from the heavens to rule as long as they did so effectively.[6] It also declared a ruler the Son of Heaven (天子; Tianzi), giving them the right to rule "all under heaven" (天下; Tianxia).[10] Given the Mandate's subjective nature, rulers also utilized a variety of methods to retain support and justify their accession.[6] This ranged from military enforcement, political patronage, establishing peace and solidity, institutional reform, and historical revisionism to legitimize the dissolution previous dynasties and their own succession.[11] For most of Imperial China, the wuxing (五行; "Five Elements") philosophical scheme was also central to justify dynastic succession.[12]
Most Chinese monarchs had many names. They were given a personal name (名字; Mingzi) at birth, but later referred to by a posthumous name (謚號; Shihao)—which memorialized their accomplishments or character—due to a cultural naming taboo.[13] Most emperors of the Imperial period also received a temple name (廟號; Miaohao), used to venerate them in ancestor worship.[14] From the rule of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) onwards,[c] emperors also adopted one or several era names (年號; Nianhao), or "reign mottos",[17] to divide their rule by important events or accomplishments.[18]Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) rulers are referred to solely by their era names, of which they only had one.[19]
Apart from ethnic Han rulers, China was also ruled by various non-Han monarchs, including Jurchen, Khitan, Manchu, Mongol and Tangut and many others.[20] To justify their reign, non-Han rulers sometimes aligned themselves with the Confucian sages or the Chakravarti of Chinese Buddhism.[5] There are numerous lengthy periods where many competing kingdoms claimed the throne, many of whose legitimacy is still debated by scholars.[20]
In traditional Chinese historiography, various models of mythological founding rulers exist.[21] The relevancy of these figures to the earliest Chinese people is unknown, since most accounts of them were written from the Warring States period (c. 475–221 BCE) onwards.[22] The sinologist Kwang-chih Chang has generalized the typical stages: "the first period was populated by gods, the second by demigods/culture hero, and the third by the legendary kings."[23] The primordial god Pangu is given by many texts as the earliest figure and is credited with forming the world by separating heaven and earth.[24] Other gods include Nüwa, who repaired heaven; Hou Yi, a mythical archer; and Gonggong, a serpent-like water deity.[25]
Demigod and hero rulers from hero myths—the largest group Chinese myths—are attributed the invention of specific items, practices or traditions.[26] Among the more important of them are Fuxi, the inventor of hunting; Suiren, who invented fire; and Shennong, who invented both agriculture and medicine.[27] The subsequent legendary kings began with the Yellow Emperor (黃帝), known as Huangdi, a major culture hero of Chinese civilization whose reign was considered exemplary.[27] Succeeding rulers include some combination of Shaohao, Zhuanxu, Emperor Ku, Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun.[28] Since the late Warring States onwards, early Chinese monarchs have traditionally been ground into the concept of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors;[28] however, the chosen figures of this grouping varies considerably between sources.[27] Generally, most accounts include at least Fuxi and Shennong among the Three Sovereigns as well as the Yellow Emperor, Yao and Shun among the Five Emperors.[28]
The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period was followed by the Xia dynasty in traditional historiography.[29] Founded by Yu the Great, both the dynasty and its rulers are of highly uncertain and controversial historicity.[29][30]
Awarded the throne after his institution of flood control. He is often known as "Yu the Great" and his passing of the throne to his son marked the beginning of China's hereditary succession[33]
Traditionally considered an ineffective king, either due to tyranny or incompetence. May have been briefly dethroned by the mythical hero Han Zhuo and later murdered by Han's son Ao[35]
Unlike the Xia, the Shang dynasty's historicity is firmly established, due to written records on divination objects known as Oracle bones. The oldest such oracle bones date to the Late Shang (c. 1250—1046 BCE), during the reign of Wu Ding (1250–1192), putting the exact details of earlier rulers into doubt.[43][44]
A powerful king with a lengthy reign. Made his wife Fu Hao the a military general and is purportedly defeated the mostly-unknown Guifang people.[58] The first ruler whose name is included in oracle bones which date to his reign.[59][56]
Engaged in numerous military campaigns, including against the state of Yiqu. Traditionally held to have been killed by a lightning strike, considered a bad omen[64]
? – after 184 BCE
An infant emperor whose reign was completely dominated by Empress Lü. Deposed and put under house arrest; unknown date of death after 184[98]
157/156 – 29 March 87 BCE[q] (aged 69)
Among the longest reigning and highly regarded Chinese emperors. Expanded the Han dynasty considerably. Died from an unknown illness[103]
5 – 25 CE (aged 20)
A child puppet of Wang Mang; often not considered legitimate. He later attempted to succeed the Gengshi Emperor, but was killed by him[111]
10 January 9 – 6 October 23 CE (14 years, 8 months and 26 days)
Era(s)
Shijianguo (始建國) 15 January 9 – 19 January 14 CE
Tianfeng (天鳳) 20 January 14 – 13 January 20 CE
Dihuang (地皇) 14 January 20 – 6 October 23 CE
After dominating the reign of Emperor Ping, Wang Mang overthrew him and established the short-lived Xin dynasty
46 BCE – 6 October 23 CE (aged 68)
Established the Xin dynasty, but his drastic reforms incited the Red Eyebrows and Lulin peasant rebellions which collapsed the dynasty. [112]
22 January 239 – 16 October 254 (15 years, 8 months and 24 days)
Era(s)
Zhengshi (正始) 240 – 7 May 249
Jiaping (嘉平) 8 May 249 – 1 November 254
Adopted heir by Cao Rui, who had no sons of his own. He was presumably related to the imperial family in some way
231–274 (aged 42–43)
His reign was completely dominated by Cao Shuang, Sima Yi and Sima Shi, the latter of which eventually deposed Cao Fang. Died of natural causes[131]
c. 241 – 9 July 260 (aged 18–19)
His reign was completely dominated by Sima Shi and Sima Zhao. Died in a failed coup to regain power from Sima Zhao[132]
243–260 (aged 16–17)
His reign was completely dominated by three successive regents: Zhuge Ke, Sun Jun and Sun Chen. He was later deposed and died of natural causes[137]
19 August 372 – 6 November 396 (24 years, 2 months and 18 days)
Era(s)
Ningkang (寧康) 373–376
Taiyuan (太元) 376–397
Son of Emperor Jianwen
362 – 396 (aged 34)
His army's defeat of the Former Qin army at the Battle of Fei River led to the eventual collapse of the Former Qin. Killed by a jealous concubine[154]
566 – 25 June 635 (aged 69)
Abdicated in favor of his son following the Xuanwu Gate Incident. A fair and capable ruler, his reign is said to have started a golden age in Chinese history, although imperial propaganda often underestimated his reign to exalt that of his son[242]
23 January 597/99 – 10 July 649 (aged 50–52)
Considered one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history, both as a conqueror and administrator. His reign saw a territorial expansion and economic growth not seen since the Han dynasty. Died after a period of prolonged illness, possibly due to alchemical elixir poisoning[243]
20 July 628 – 27 December 683 (aged 55)
A well-meaning but ineffectual ruler, his reign was dominated by several successive regencies. Suffered a serious stroke in late 660, whereafter the government was run by his wife, the future Empress Wu Zetian. Died after several years of illness[244]
Posthumous name (706): Emperor Zetian Dasheng (則天大聖皇帝)
Posthumous name (710): Holy Empress (大聖天后)
Posthumous name (716): Empress Zetian (則天皇后)
Posthumous name (749): Holy Empress Zetianshun (則天順聖皇后)
Wu Zhao 武曌
16 October 690 – 21 February 705 (14 years, 4 months and 5 days)
Era(s)
Tianshou (天授) 16 October 690 – 21 April 692
Ruyi (如意) 22 April – 22 October 692
Changshou (長壽) 23 October 692 – 8 June 694
Yanzai (延載) 9 June 694 – 21 January 695
Zhengsheng (證聖) 22 January – 21 October 695
Tiancewansui (天冊萬歲) 22 October 695 – 19 January 696
Wansuidengfeng (萬歲登封) 20 January – 21 April 696
Wansuitongtian (萬歲通天) 22 April 696 – 28 September 697
Shengong (神功) 29 September – 19 December 697
Shengli (聖曆) 20 December 697 – 26 May 700
Jiushi (久視) 27 May 700 – 14 February 701
Dazu (大足) 15 February – 25 November 701
Chang'an (長安) 26 November 701 – 21 February 705
Former consort of emperors Taizong and Gaozong; regent since November 660, de facto ruler since January 683
623/625 – 12 December 706 (aged 81–83)
Only female sovereign in Chinese history. Notable for her contribution to the Imperial examination system and her support for Buddhism, but also for her violent methods of enforcement. Deposed by Zhang Jianzhi; died of natural causes[248]
25 July 710 – 8 September 712 (2 years, 1 month and 14 days)
Era(s)
Jingyun (景雲) 19 August 710 – 28 February 712
Taiji (太極) 1 March – 20 June 712
Yanhe (延和) 21 June – 11 September 712
Restored to the throne by detractors of Empress Wei
22 June 662 – 13 July 716 (aged 54)
Spent his reign in a constant power struggle with his sister, Princess Taiping. Abdicated in favor of his son to undermine her influence[251]
8 September 685 – 3 May 762 (aged 76)
One of the greatest and longest reigning Chinese emperors. The Tang empire reached its peak during his early reign, but fell of grace at the end as a result of the disastrous An Lushan Rebellion. Abdicated in favor of his son[252]
27 May 742 – 25 February 805 (aged 62)
Notable for his tax reforms, he also attempted to control regional jiedushi, but this backfired and caused a military mutiny in 783[255]
5 September 805 – 14 February 820 (14 years, 5 months and 9 days)
Era(s)
Yuanhe (元和) 25 January 806 – 8 February 810
Son of Shunzong
March 778 – 14 February 820 (aged 41)
Ended the warlord threat, but ended up becoming a puppet of the eunuchs. A drug addict, he was poisoned to death by eunuch Chen Hongzhi[257]
July 795 – 25 February 824 (aged 28)
Suffered a serious stroke in 822 (while playing polo), whereafter the government was run by eunuchs Wang Shoucheng and Li Fengji.[258]
20 November 809 – 10 February 840 (aged 30)
Attempted to eradicate the eunuchs in the Sweet Dew incident (835), but ended up making them stronger. Died of natural causes[260]
27 July 810 – 7 September 859 (aged 49)
Arguably the last capable Tang emperor. Notable for his campaigns against the Tibetan Empire. Died of drug overdose[262]
13 September 859 – 15 August 873 (13 years, 11 months and 2 days)
Era(s)
Xiantong (咸通) 17 December 847 – 16 December 860
Son of Xuanzong
28 December 833 – 15 August 873 (aged 39)
A devout Buddhist, but also a cruel and unstable ruler. His reign, which was dominated by eunuchs, saw various revolts that severely weakened imperial power[263]
31 March 867 – 22 September 904 (aged 37)
His reign saw the final collapse of imperial authority and the rise of new powerful warlords. He was killed by rebel Zhu Wen[267]
4 February 960 – 14 November 976 (16 years, 9 months and 10 days)
Era(s)
Jianlong (建隆) 4 February 960 – 3 December 963
Qiande (乾德) 4 December 963 – 15 December 968
Kaibao (開寶) 16 December 968 – 13 January 977
Proclaimed emperor after deposing Chai Zongxun of Later Zhou. Unified most of China under his rule
21 March 927 – 14 November 976 (aged 49)
Significantly reduced the power of the military in favor of civilian officers. Died in uncertain circumstances, probably illness[306]
20 November 939 – 8 May 997 (aged 57)
Conquered the last remaining Chinese state in 978, but failed the reconquer former Tang territories, like Vietnam. Died of natural causes[307]
23 December 968 – 23 March 1022 (aged 53)
Suffered significant defeats to the northern Liao dynasty, leading to the Chanyuan Treaty. Died after a prolonged period of illness[308]
30 May 1010 – 30 April 1063 (aged 52)
Ruled under the regency of Empress Liu until 1033. His long reign, the longest of the Song dynasty, saw several developments in culture, philosophy and arts[309]
7 June 1082 – 4 June 1135 (aged 52)
A remarkable patron of the arts and an artist himself, but a weak ruler and politician. Abdicated during the Jurchen Jin siege of Kaifeng. Captured by the Jin shortly after; died in captivity[313]
23 May 1100 – 14 June 1161 (aged 62)
Refused to negotiate with the Jin, which led to a second invasion. Captured alongside his father during the Jingkang incident; died in captivity[314]
12 June 1127 – 24 July 1162 (35 years, 1 month and 12 days)[aa]
Era(s)
Jianyan (建炎) 12 June 1127 – 30 January 1131
Shaoxing (紹興) 31 January 1131 – 22 December 1162
Son of Huizong, proclaimed emperor in Jiankang after fleeing the Jurchen invasion of the North
12 June 1107 – 9 November 1187 (aged 80)
A competent ruler that managed to preserve the Song dynasty, but often criticized for his military defeats and political failures. Abdicated in favor of his adopted son, later dying of natural causes[316]
27 November 1127 – 28 June 1194 (aged 66)
Often regarded as the most peaceful and stable ruler of the Southern Song. Abdicated in favour of his son, later dying of natural causes[318]
30 September 1147 – 17 September 1200 (aged 53)
Forced to abdicate in favor of his son, allegedly because of his mental instability. Died of natural causes[319]
17 September 1224 – 16 November 1264 (40 years, 1 month and 30 days)
Era(s)
Baoqing (寶慶; 1225–1227)
Shaoding (紹定; 1228–1233)
Duanping (端平; 1234–1236)
Jiaxi (嘉熙; 1237–1240)
Chunyou (淳祐; 1241–1252)
Baoyou (寶祐; 1253–1258)
Kaiqing (開慶; 1259)
Jingding (景定; 1260–1264)
Son of Zhao Xilu, a descendant of the first Song Emperor, Taizu
26 January 1205 – 16 November 1264 (aged 59)
An emperor devoted to philosophy and the arts, he had to face the first Mongol incursions following the fall of the Jin. Died of illness[321]
2 November 1270 – 1323
Ruled under the regency of Empress Xie, who was forced to surrender to the Mongols. Became a monk in Tibet, but was later executed of forced to commit suicide; died in Gansu[323]
Son of Duzong, proclaimed emperor in Fuzhou after the fall of the capital
1268 – 8 May 1278 (aged 10)
Spent most of his life fleeing from the Mongols by sea. Died of illness after barely surviving the sinking of his ship[324]
1271 – 19 March 1279 (aged 8)
Thrown into the Xi River during the Battle of Yamen alongside several soldiers and officers as part of a mass suicide[325]
971 – 25 June 1031 (aged 59–60)
Longest reigning Liao ruler, though he was controlled by his mother Xiao Yanyan until 1009. Died of natural causes[332]
16 February 1304 – 2 September 1332 (aged 28)
A patron of the arts and scholarship, his reign was dominated by the ministers El Temür and Bayan of the Merkid. Died of natural causes[354]
21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398 (aged 69)
Initiated cultural reconstruction and political reform, also noted for his extreme and violent methods of enforcement. Died of natural causes[359]
5 December 1377 – 13 July 1402 (aged 24)
Overthrown by the future Yongle Emperor, his uncle. Either died in or disappeared after the fires in the Ming Palace.[361]
29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464 (aged 36)
His reign was dominated by eunuchs, particularly Wang Zhen, which led to growing instability. Captured by the Northern Yuan dynasty during the Tumu Crisis.[366]
11 September 1428 – 14 March 1457 (aged 28)
Briefly ruled while his brother was held captive; deposed soon after. Died a month later, possibly from murder.[367]
14 November 1491 – 20 April 1521 (aged 29)
His reign saw the rise of influence from eunuchs, particularly Liu Jin. Probably drowned after his boat sank.[371]
4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620 (aged 56)
Despite early successes, the gradual decline of Ming began towards the end of his reign. Died of natural causes[374]
4 May 1654 – 20 December 1722 (aged 68)
Longest ruling Chinese emperor. Expanded the empire's territory, and commissioned both the Kangxi Dictionary and Complete Tang Poems. Died of natural causes[380]
13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735 (aged 56)
Ruled for a relatively short period, establishing the Grand Council. Probably died of alchemical elixir poisoning; death officially recorded as natural causes.[381][as]
16 September 1782 – 25 February 1850 (aged 67)
An ineffective ruler who led a highly unstable reign, marked by the First Opium War and the early Taiping Rebellion. Probably died from a stroke[385]
17 July 1831 – 22 August 1861 (aged 30)
The last Chinese emperor to have personal power for the entirety of his reign, which was unstable after the Taiping Rebellion, Nian Rebellion and Second Opium War. Died of natural causes[386]
27 April 1856 – 12 January 1875 (aged 18)
Reign was completely dominated by Empress Dowager Cixi, who initiated the Tongzhi Restoration. Died suddenly, under suspicious circumstances[388]
14 August 1871 – 14 November 1908 (aged 37)
Initiated the failed Hundred Days' Reform, and from 1898 on, his reign was completely dominated by Empress Dowager Cixi. Died of poisoning, possibly from Cixi.[389]
7 February 1906 – 17 October 1967 (aged 61)
Reigned as a young child, but was forced to abdicate in 1912 amid the 1911 Revolution, ending the 2000 year monarchial system of Imperial China. Died of natural causes.[390]
^Contemporary scholars often split Chinese history into three periods: Ancient, Imperial and Modern, based on the Ancient, Medieval and Modern scheme developed by Liang Qichao.[1] In Chinese history, "Medieval"—originally defined as from the Qin to Qing dynasties—has since been replaced by "Imperial".[2] "Medieval" now refers to the more specific period from the End of the Han dynasty through the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms.[3]
^The Mandate of Heaven is essentially equivalent to the European divine right of kings.[7] It was first formally introduced by the Duke of Zhou to justify his house's overthrow of the Shang.[7] Prior to this, the Shang kings justified their rule by being claiming descent from a "divine ancestor",[8] and being able to interpret, manipulate and maintain cosmic relations between humans and heaven (天; Tian).[9]
^All reign dates for the Xia rulers are excluded. They are highly speculative, due to their dependence on the already uncertain beginning and ending dates of the dynasty
^The traditional dating method (beginning the Shang in 1766) is not included in this table. See Liu et al. 2021, pp. 165, 169 for another, more recent, method of dating
^Zu Ji, another son of Wu Ding is given a kingly title in some oracle bone texts, but did probably not reign.[61]
^In his lifetime, Ying Zheng would have been known as simply "Shi Huangdi", but after the Qin's fall it became standard practice to include the dynasty's name when referring to him. His dynastic name is commonly abbreviated to 'Qin Shi Huang'. In its fullest form, it would be: Qin Shi Huangdi (秦始皇帝)[4]
^Moule 1957, p. 3 gives 18 July 210 BCE as the exact date for the end of Qin Shi Huang's reign, but also notes the issues surrounding this chronology. The date is accepted by Vervoorn 1990, p. 311, but it's not used by modern scholars.[82][83]Hymes 2000, p. 8 gives July–August 210 BCE, the seventh lunar month.
^In its fullest form, Ying Huhai's dynastic name would be Qin Er Shi Huangdi (秦二世皇帝)[4]
^After Qin Er Shi's death the Qin dynasty became increasingly weaker in power, so Zhao Gao proclaimed the state was once again a kingdom, not an empire. Thus when Ziying (子嬰) ascended to the throne, he only ruled as a King of Qin.[89] After ruling for 46 days in late 207 BCE, Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang and was later killed by Xiang Yu during the Chu–Han Contention.[90][91]
^Liu Bang began his peasant revolt in 209 BCE, during the collapse of the Qin dynasty. He assumed the title "King of Han" (漢王) in 206 BCE, referencing his dominions near the Han river. He only assumed the title of Emperor (皇帝; Huangdi) in 202 BCE after his victory in the Chu–Han Contention.[93]
^ abIn order to justify Emperor Wen of Han's overthrow of the House of Lü's puppets, Houshao and Qianshao, both of the dynasty's official histories—the Shiji and Hanshu—assert that neither was actually a son of Hui.[97]
^ abThough most modern sources agree that Emperor Wu died on 29 March 87 BCE, Vervoorn 1990, p. 312 gives 2 March; Moule 1957, p. 5 gives 27 March.
^Liu Yi reigned for less than a year, so thus did not live long enough to receive an era name[120]
^de Crespigny 2010, p. 450 notes that "On 11 December [...] Cao Cao's son and successor Cao Pi received the abdication of the last emperor of Han. [...] Some authorities give the date of abdication as 25 November [...] This is the date upon which Emperor Xian issued an edict calling upon Cao Pi to take the throne, but the ceremonial transfer of sovereignty was carried out two weeks later"
^Not counting Ruzi Ying, who never officially ascended to the throne.
^Moule 1957, p. 34 gives 30 May 618 as the date for the end of Yang You's reign, but modern sources usually give 12 June.[240]
^Also known as "Wu Hou" (武后). The title Huanghou (皇后) given to consorts it's often translated as "Empress consort" in English. Though often translated as "Emperor" in this context, the title Huangdi, as well as many other Chinese words, has no assigned gender.[247]
^In 1008, Taizong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaowu (孝武). This was changed in 1052 to Emperor Xiaowu Huiwen (孝武惠文皇帝).[327]
^Some sources differ over the dates for Taizong's Datong era, see Moule 1957, p. 95
^In 952, Shizong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaohe (孝和) this was changed in 1008 to Emperor Xiaohe Zhuangxian (孝和莊憲皇帝).[327]
^In 983, Jingzong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaocheng (孝成) this was changed in 1052 to Emperor Xiaocheng Kangjing (孝成康靖皇帝).[327]
^See Cui & Wen 2007 for further information on the complexities surrounding the names of the Western Xia rulers
^ abThe death of Jingzong is uncertain and contradictory in many records. He may have died in late 1047 or early 1048.[336]
^In the Ming dynasty, a few days usually separate each emperor's reign. When a Ming emperor died there was a period of mourning, after which their successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year. Thus, the Hongwu (洪武) era did not technically end with the Hongwu Emperor's death on 24 June 1398, but ended on 5 February 1399 when the subsequent Jianwen Emperor began a new era on 6 February 1399.[358]
^Following his death, the Yongle Emperor was given the temple name Taizong
(太宗) by his successor the Hongxi Emperor, but this was changed on 3 October 1538 to Chengzu (成祖) by the Jiajing Emperor. The latter has been used since its bestowment[360]
^In the Qing dynasty, a few days usually separate each emperor's reign. When a Qing emperor died there was a period of mourning, after which the successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year. Thus, the Shunzhi (順治) era did not technically end with the Shunzhi Emperor's death on 5 February 1661, but ended on 17 February 1662 when the subsequent Kangxi Emperor began a new era on 18 February 1662.[378]
^There are popular, though unsubstantiated, rumors that the Yongzheng Emperor was killed by the daughter of Lü Liuliang, whom he had executed.[382]
^ abThe Xuantong Emperor was only given posthumous and temple names in 2004 when the Qing family's descendants bestowed him with them.[378]
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